Terms for History 101
(Based primarily on Student Study Guide to accompany Traditions and Encounters)

Chapter 1

Significant Individuals

Lucy (pp. 7, 9) - Best known prehistoric individual; lived about 3.5 million years ago in east Africa, and her skeleton was discovered by archaeologists in 1974 in modem-day Hadar, Ethiopia; belongs to Australopithecus and classified as AL 288- 1; her name "Lucy" was given by archaeologists.

Chapter Glossary

Australopithecus (p. 9) - "Southern ape," earliest species of hominids; flourished in east Africa between four million and one million years ago; walked upright on two legs; fashioned crude stone tools by well- developed hands with opposable thumbs; had limited ability to communicate verbally; might have used fire in later ages.

Catal Huyuk (p. 24) - One of the best known neolithic towns; located in south-central Anatolia (modem-day Turkey) and dated from 7250 to 6150 B.C.E.; had about eight thousand inhabitants; various products found in this site indicate specialization of labor.

cave paintings (p. 18) - prehistoric art of Cro-Magnon peoples dating from about 35 to 12 thousand years ago; mostly found in caves in southern France and northern Spain; most of the subjects were animals, which reflect the artists' interest in successful hunting expeditions.

Cro-Magnon peoples (pp. 17-18) - Paleolithic peoples; the first human beings of the fully modem type; appeared about 40 thousand years ago; displayed a noticeable interest in fashion, artistic expression, and a strong concern about fertility.

hominids (p. 9) - Human and humanlike species, one of the most distinctive of the primate species; share some remarkable similarities with large apes, but small differences in genetic makeup and body chemistry led hominids to develop an extraordinarily high order of intelligence.

neolithic (pp. 19-20)- "New stone age"; early stages of agricultural society, from about 12 thousand to 6 thousand years ago.

Paleolithic (p. 14) - "Old Stone age"; extended from the evolution of the firsthominids ( 4 million years ago) until about 12 thousand years ago; societies typified by using crude stone tools, hunting and fathering for subsistence.

prehistory (p. 8) - Period of human history before the invention of writing.

Chapter 2

Significant Individuals

Ahmosis (p. 39) - Pharaoh and founder of the New Kingdom in Egypt; expelled the Hyksos and reunited Egypt by 1550 B.C.E.; began imperial expansion by leading armies into Palestine and Syria

Akhenaten (p. 49) (reigned 1353-1335 B.C.E.) - Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep IV, who named himself Akhenaten to honor the god Aten. He considered Aten to be the only true god, thus issuing in a short- lived era of monotheism in Egypt, perhaps the world's first.

Gilgamesh (p. 48) legendary king of the Sumerian city, Uruk, shortly after 3000 B.C.E.; hero in Epic of Gilgamesh.

Hammurabi (pp. 38-39) (reigned 1792-1750 B.C.E.) - Creator of Babylonian empire; styled himself "king of the four quarters of the world," relied on centralized bureaucratic rule and levied regular tax; especially known for his codification of laws.

Menes (also known as Narmer) (p. 36) - Egyptian king, unified Egypt through conquest about 3 100 B.C.E. and brought about the first centralized state ruled by the pharaoh; also founded the capital city Memphis.

Moses (pp. 50-5 1) - Leader of the Hebrews who led them from Egypt around 1300 B.C.E. to Palestine, where they built a regional kingdom.

Nebuchadnezzar (p. 40) (reigned 605-562 B.C.E.) - King of the New Babylonian Empire; known for his construction of the enormous capital city, Babylon. Queen

Hatshepsut (p. 46) (reigned 1503-1482 B.C.E.) - Regent of a young pharaoh, claimed the title of pharaoh for herself.

Sargon of Akkad (p. 38) (2370-2315 B.C.E.) - Founder and emperor of the Akkadian empire; seized power through a coup in 2334 B.C.E.; conquered other Sumerian city-states and controlled all of Mesopotamia.

Tuthmosis III (p. 39) (reigned 1490-1436 B.C.E.) - Pharaoh of the New Kingdom; continued imperial expansion and personally launched seventeen campaigns against Palestine and Syria; eventually dominated the coastal regions of the eastern Mediterranean.

Chapter Glossary

alphabet (p. 52) - Writing first invented by the Phoenicians by about 1500 B.C.E.; consisted of twenty-two symbols representing consonants (the Phoenician alphabet did not have vowels).

Amon-Re (pp. 48-49) - Composite of the sun god Re and the air god Amon around which the most important cult of ancient Egypt developed; honored at a massive temple complex in Heliopolis by Egyptian priests.

Assyrian empire (p. 40) - Empire in Mesopotamia built by the Assyrians, a hardy people from northern Mesopotamia who extended their authority south after 1000 B.C.E. At its high point, during the eighth and seventh centuries B.C.E., the Assyrian empire covered Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, much of Anatolia, and most of Egypt. Internal unrest and external assaults brought it down in 612 B.C.E.

Aten (p. 49) - Egyptian god whose cult flourished during the reign of Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (reigned 1353-1335 B.C.E.). The pharaoh changed his name to Akhenaten in honor of his preferred deity. Aten was considered to be one and only true god, but this monotheism was only short-lived in Egypt. After the pharaoh died, the cult of Amon-Re soon replaced the cult of Aten.

Babylonian empire (pp. 38-39) - A regional empire built by Hammurabi in 1792 B.C.E. that dominated Mesopotamia until about 1600 B.C.E.; collapsed due to foreign invasions.

bronze (p. 41) - Discovered by Mesopotamian craftsmen around 3000 B.C.E. A strong alloy of copper and tin, bronze enabled the specialized production of much more effective weapons. Eventually, it was also used for agricultural tools.

chariots (pp. 36-37) - Drawn by horses and developed by foreign peoples (e.g., the Hyksos and the Assyrians) as a powerfid new military technology; used to invade Egypt around the time of the Middle Kingdom (2080-1640 B.C.E.) city-state (pp. 33-35) - Form of government typical in ancient Mesopotamia; urban-based kingdom ruled by kings and nobles.

Cult of Osiris (p. 49) - Popular cult of ancient Egypt; Osiris, the lord of the underworld, was associated with immortality as an afterlife reward for individuals observing high moral standards.

cuneiform (pp. 46-47) - Writing system developed by the Sumerians beginning about 2900 B.C.E., using a wedge-shaped stylus to impress symbols on wet clay tablets. The symbols represented not only physical objects, but also sounds, syllables, and ideas.

Epic of Gilgamesh (pp. 43, 48) - First reflective literature in Western civilization, compiled after 2000 B.C.E. during the days of Babylonian empire; recounted the experiences of Gilgamesh, king of Uruk, who lived shortly after 3000 B.C.E.; explored themes of human friendship, relations between humans and the gods, and especially the meaning of life and death; also included the story of the Great Flood.

Hammurabi's laws (pp. 38-39) - The most extensive and complete Mesopotamian law code; used by Hammurabi to maintain his empire. Criminal laws established high standards of behavior through stem punishments for violators, and civil laws regulated prices, wages, commercial dealings, marital relationships, and the conditions of slavery; relied heavily on the principle of

lex talionis - the "law of retaliation," whereby offenders suffered punishments resembling their violations.

Hebrews (pp. 33, 50-5 1) - Semitic speaking people who lived between Mesopotamia and Egypt during the second millennium B.C.E. Migrated first to Egypt and then to Palestine, where they established a regional kingdom that dominated the territory between Syrian and Sinai peninsula during the tenth century. Especially known for their monotheistic belief in Yahweh.

hieroglyphs (p. 47) - Writing system developed in ancient Egypt; pictographs supplemented with symbols representing sounds and ideas. The term hieroglyphs came from two Greek words meaning "holy inscriptions."

Hittites (p. 39) Based in Anatolia, they brought down the Babylonian empire around 1595 B.C

Hyksos (pp. 36-37) - Foreign invaders who brought down Egypt's Middle Kingdom in 1640 B.C.E. They were later expelled but their success prompted later pharaohs to seize control of regions that might pose future threats.

iron (p. 41) - After about 1200 B.C.E., Mesopotamians used iron to make tools and weapons. Assyrians made particularly effective use of iron weapons in building their empire.

Kush (p. 53) - African kingdom established by Nubians in the northern part of sub-Saharan Africa by about 1000 B.C.E. Invaded Egypt about 750 B.C.E. and imposed Nubian rule there until Assyrian conquerors drove them out in 664 B.C.E.; especially known for their spreading iron metallurgy in sub-Saharan Africa.

Mesopotamia (pp. 32-33) - Literally, "the land between the rivers," referring to the alluvial valley plain of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in modem day Iraq. The world's first complex society emerged in this area in about 3200 B.C.E.

mummification (pp. 31, 49) - Custom of preserving bodies of the dead with a belief in afterlife, especially developed in ancient Egypt; process was complicated and costly.

New Babylonian empire (p. 40) - Also known as the Chaldean empire; dominated Mesopotamia from 600 to 550 B.C.E. Built by King Nebuchadnezzar after the collapse of Assyrian empire.

The Nile (p. 35) - River of northeast Africa; runs more than 6,400 kilometers (3,978 miles) from its source at lake Victoria to its outlet through the delta to the Mediterranean Sea. Annual floods left alluvial deposits on the valley and supported productive agriculture in ancient Egypt.

Nubians (pp. 52-53) - People of northern sub-Saharan Africa who established the kingdom of Kush during the first millennium B.C.E., and invaded Egypt imposing their rule in 750 B.C.E. Known for their spread of iron metallurgy in sub-Saharan Africa.

patriarchal society (pp. 44-46) - A system of social organization in which men have vested authority over all public and private affairs. Both Mesopotamia and Egypt built patriarchal societies; Hammurabi's laws reflected the importance of patriarchal organization.

pharaoh (p. 36) - Kings of ancient Egypt, claimed to be gods living on the earth in human form, owners and absolute rulers of all the land.

Phoenicians (pp. 51-52) - Semitic speaking people who lived between the Mediterranean and the mountains of Lebanon. By 2500 B.C.E., they dominated trade in the Mediterranean basin. Between 1200 and 800 B.C.E., the Phoenicians established colonies in Cyprus, Sicily, Spain, and north Africa; they are known especially for their invention of alphabetic writing.

pyramids (p. 36) - Monumental royal tombs, typical of Old Kingdom Egypt (2660-2180 B.C.E.).

Sargon's empire (p. 38) - First regional empire in Mesopotamia, created by Sargon, the ruler of the city-state of Akkad, in about 2334 B.C.E. At its high point, the empire embraced all of Mesopotamia, and its armies had ventured as far afield as the Mediterranean and Black Sea; the empire lasted only for a few generations.

Sumerians (pp. 32-33) - People who migrated to the land of Sumer (in the southern half of Mesopotamia) as early as about 5000 B.C.E., where they created the first complex society in about 3200 B.C.E.

temple communities (p. 43) - Communities of priests and priestesses in ancient Mesopotamian cities; wealthy and powerful institutions that served many social and economic functions beyond those of religion.

Yahweh (p. 5 1) -- God of the Hebrews, believed to be the creator and sustainer of the world and all within it; demanded that the Hebrews, his chosen people, observe high moral and ethical standards. Monotheism represented by belief in Yahweh had a deep influence on the development of Christianity and Islam.

Chapter 3

Chapter Glossary

Aryans (pp. 57, 66-67) - A group of Indo-European nomadic pastoralists who migrated to India in large numbers after 1500 B.C.E.; they integrated with the indigenous Dravidians and created a new society in India. Brahman (p. 73) - the "universal soul" described in the Upanishads, sacred texts of Aryan India; believed to be an eternal, unchanging, permanent foundation for all things that exist, hence the only genuine reality. The highest goal of an individual soul was to escape the cycle of birth and rebirth and enter into permanent union with Brahman.

caste (pp. 67-69) - Comes from the Portuguese word casta, referring to a social class of hereditary and usually unchangeable status. The caste system as a rigid system of social classification was first introduced into Indian society by the Aryans.

dharma - The concept of "sacred laws" widely accepted in India.

Dravidians (pp. 58-59) - Indigenous people from the valley of the Indus River. Established Harappan society by about 3000 B.C.E.

Harappa and Mohenjo-daro (pp. 59-60) - Two major cities of Harappan society, well-planned and precisely laid out, that dominated the valley of the Indus River until its collapse about 1500 B.C.E. Harappan society (pp. 60-62) - First complex society of the Indian subcontinent. Harappan society emerged in the Indus River valley about 3000 B.C.E. and was replaced by a new society developed under Aryan influence from 1500 B.C.E. onward.

Harappan writing (p. 58-59) - Writing of the Dravidians; it used about four hundred symbols to represent sounds and words and survives on clay seals, copper tablets, and other Harappan artifacts. Scholars have not yet succeeded in deciphering these scripts.

Himalayas (pp. 59-60) - Mountains located at the northeastern edge of the Indian subcontinent. They form a natural barrier between India and China and are one of the sources of the Indus River.

Hindu Kush (pp. 59-60) - Mountains in the northern portion of the Indian subcontinent, one of the sources of the Indus River.

Indo-Europeans (pp. 63-65) - Nomadic people whose original homeland was probably the steppe region of modern-day Ukraine and southern Russia; developed their earliest communities there between about 4500 and 2500 B.C.E., and migrated to many other regions of Eurasia beginning about 4000 B.C.E.

Indo-European migrations (pp. 63-65) - Migrations of Indo-European speaking people, which continued from about 4000 to 1000 B.C.E. throughout Eurasia.

Indra (pp. 57, 71) - Aryan god, primarily a war god; depicted as a boisterous, hard-drinking warrior.

Indus River (p. 59) - One of the major rivers of the world, flowing from its sources in the Hindu Kush and the Himalayas to the Arabian Sea. The first complex society of the Indian subcontinent, Harappan society, was located in its valley.

jati (p. 68) - Subcastes of Indian society, largely determined by occupations.

karma (p. 73) - "Actions" which determine the specific incarnations that souls experienced.

Lawbook of Manu (p. 70) - Manuscript prepared by an anonymous sage of India during the first century B.C.E. or perhaps somewhat later; dealt with proper moral behavior and social relationships, including sex and gender relationships.

moksha (p. 73) - The religious goal taught by the Upanishads; a state of deep, dreamless sleep that came with permanent liberation from physical incarnation.

Prakrit (p. 65) - raja (p. 66) - Title for leaders of chiefdoms of early Aryan society who governed in collaboration with a council of village elders. Raja was a Sanskrit term related to the Latin word rex ("king").

reincarnation (p. 72) - Typical of religious beliefs of Dravidians that an individual soul could depart from one body at death and become associated with another body through a new birth. Language of Aryan India, not sacred but used for everyday communication.

samsara (p. 73) - One of the important doctrines of the Upanishads; held that upon death, individual souls go temporarily to the World of the Fathers and then return to earth in a new incarnation.

Sanskrit (pp. 63, 65) Sacred language of Aryan India, used mainly for religious purposes.

sati (p. 70) - Indian custom by which a widow voluntarily threw herself on the funeral pyre of her deceased husband to join him in death.

soma (p. 72) - Hallucinogenic concoction that produced sensations of power and divine inspiration, used in ritual sacrifices of Aryan Indians.

Upanishad (pp. 72-73) - Literally means "a sitting in front of," which referred to the practice of disciples gathering before a sage for discussion of religious issues in Aryan India. The written works that contained such discussions appeared between about 800 and 400 B.C.E., and were called the Upanishads.

varna (pp. 67-68) - Sanskrit word meaning "color," used by Aryans to refer to social classes. There were four main varnas: priests (brahmins); warriors and aristocrats (kshatriyas); cultivators, artisans, and merchants (vaishyas); and landless peasants and serfs (shudras); all four varnas were above the untouchable caste.

Varuna (pp. 71-72) - Aryan god, believed to preside over the sky and oversee the behavior of mortals, who also inflicted malefactors with severe punishments.

Vedas (pp. 65-66) - Literally, veda in Aryan Sanskrit meant "wisdom" or "knowledge" needed by priests to carry out their functions. Refers to orally transmitted works of early Aryan priests. There are altogether four Vedas, the earliest and the most important of which is the Rig Veda; compiled between 1400 and 900 B.C.E., written down beginning in about 600 B.C.E.

Vedic age (p. 66) - The millennium between 1500 and 500 B.C.E. in ancient Indian history. So-called because of the importance of the Vedas as historical sources.

Chapter 4

Chapter Glossary

Ao (p. 83) - Earliest capital of the Shang, near modem Zhengzhou. The most remarkable feature of this site is the city wall, with part of it still surviving today.

Banpo village (p. 8 1) - An entire neolithic village of Yangshao society, discovered in 1952 at Banpo, near modem Xi'an. The site contained a large quantity of finely painted pottery and bone tools used by early cultivators in the sixth and fifth millennia B.C.E.

Book of Changes (p. 95) - A diviners' manual, a Chinese classic, written during Zhou times, still influential today among diviners and geomancers of east Asia.

Book of Etiquette (p. 95) - A manual of aristocrats regarding the art of polite behavior and the proper way of conducting rituals. One of classics of ancient China; also known as the Book of Rites.

Book of History (p. 95) - A collection of documents that justified the Zhou state and called for subjects to obey their overlords. One of the Chinese classics.

Book of Songs (p. 95) - One of China's classic works; a collection of poems and folksongs on various topics. Compiled after 600 B.C.E., but reflected conditions of the early Zhou dynasty. Also known as Book of Poetry or Book of Odes

"China's Sorrow" (p. 81) Referring to the Yellow River for its frequent destruction brought by flooding.

Erlitou (p. 82) - Site of the excavation of an ancient city of China near Luoyang, possibly the capital of the Xia dynasty. Excavations have shown that the city featured a large, palace-type structure as well as more modest houses, pottery workshops, and a bronze foundry.

ideograph (p. 94) - Two or more pictographs combined into one character to express complex or abstract notions. Typical of Chinese writing.

loess (pp. 80-8 1) - Extremely fine, powderlike soil carried by the Yellow River and deposited on the plains of northern China; created fertile soil for Chinese agriculture. Found also in several other parts of the world.

mandate of heaven (pp. 84-85) - Political theory of ancient China, referring to divine source for political legitimacy of rulers. Heaven only gave the mandate, or the right to rule, to virtuous rulers. First advocated by the Zhou rulers to justify their overthrow of the Shang.

nomadic society (p. 96) - Society of steppelands to the north and west of China; the people had little agriculture but relied on herding animals; they depended on the agricultural society of China for grains and finished products.

oracle bones (p. 93) - Principal instruments used by fortune-tellers or diviners in ancient China. Questions were inscribed on broad bones of large animals or turtle shells, and when heated, the bones or shells would produce splits and cracks, which were interpreted by diviners to determine the answers.

Shang (pp. 82-83) - Second dynasty of China, changed its capitals six times along the valley of Yellow River. Famous for its bronze arts and writings on oracle bones. Lasted from 1766 to 1122 B.C.E.

Shun (p. 79-80) - One of the three sage kings in ancient Chinese legends; allegedly ordered the four seasons and issued uniform weights, measures, and units of time.

son of heaven (p. 85) - Title for a Chinese ruler; so called because he was supposed to serve as a link between heaven and earth, to govern conscientiously, to observe high standards of honor and justice, and to maintain order and harmony within his realm.

The state of Chu (p. 99) - A powerful state that emerged during the late Zhou in the central region of the Yangzi River; governed its affairs autonomously and challenged the Zhou for supremacy.

steppelands (p. 96) - Dry and grassy lands of central Asia, to the north and west of China; inhospitable to foragers and cultivators. dan (p. 92) - Chinese word for "heaven"; an important concept referring to impersonal heavenly power, or an agent responsible for bestowing and removing the power of rulers; first appeared in the Zhou dynasty.

veneration of ancestors (p. 90) - Popular religion of China since neolithic times; based on the belief that spirits of one's ancestors passed into another realm of existence from which they had the power to support and protect their surviving families if the descendants displayed proper respect and ministered to the spirits' needs.

The Warring States (p. 86) - Period of Chinese history which lasted from 403 to 221 B.C.E. A number of states resorted to military campaigns against one another, struggling for hegemony over China, as the central government of the Zhou became powerless. The prolonged civil wars were finally brought to an end by the unification of the Qin state.

Yangshao Society (p. 8 1) - Neolithic society of China, flourished from about 5000 to 3 000 B.C.E. in the middle region of the Yellow River valley.

Yangzi River (p. 98) - River in the southern part of China, flowing from mountains of Tibet in the west to the East China Sea in the east. Very dependable for rice farmers and important for water transport.

Yao (p. 79-80) - One of the three sage kings in ancient Chinese legends. A towering figure, extraordinarily modest, sincere, and respectful, whose virtuous influence brought harmony to his own family and the larger society.

Yellow River (pp. 80-8 1) - River of north China; flows from the west starting at the high plateau of Tibet eastward into the Yellow Sea. The complex society of East Asia originated from the valley of this river.

Yin (p. 83) - Another capital of Shang, near modem Anyang. The site of this city includes a complex of royal palaces, archives with written documents, several residential neighborhoods, two large bronze foundries, several workshops of craftsmen, and burial grounds.

Yu (p. 79-80) - One of the three sage kings in ancient Chinese legends. Allegedly the founder of the Xia dynasty; possibly a real Chinese ruler. Revered for his deeds of bringing the Yellow River under control.

Zhou (pp. 84-86) - Third Chinese dynasty. Originally a vassal kingdom of Shang in the west region. Overthrew the Shang in 1122 B.C.E. and established a new dynasty that lasted until 256 B.C.E.

Chapter 5

Chapter Glossary

Austronesians (p. 121) - Seafaring peoples from southeast Asia who first entered New Guinea and surrounding islands about 5,000 years ago. Their skills of navigation, agriculture, and raising domestic animals helped them to people most islands of the Pacific.

bloodletting rituals (pp. 103, 112) - Rituals practiced by Mayans with the belief that such sacrifices would please the gods who, in turn, would send rain to sustain agriculture.

cacao (p. 108) - Large beans first cultivated by the Mayans, which were the source of chocolate. Cacao was a precious commodity consumed mostly by nobles in Mayan society, and cacao beans were also used as money.

Chavin cult (pp. 117-18) - Popular religious cult of the Andeans, centered at the modem location of Chavin de Huantar in northern Peru.

Chichen Itza (p. 109-10) - A city-kingdom of the Maya, located in the northern Yucatan peninsula. Between the ninth and eleventh centuries C.E., Chichen Itza organized a loose empire that brought a measure of political stability to the Maya. 56

Kaminaljuy( (p. 108) One of the most prominent ceremonial centers of the Maya, located on the site modern Guatemala.

maize (p. 105) - Most important staple food crop of the early societies of the Americas.

Maya (pp. 108-14) - Complex society of Mesoamerica; inherited the Olmec: cultural traditions; had agricultural settlements and grand ceremonial centers in southern Mexico (including the Yucatan Penninsula), Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador.

Maya calendar (pp. 112-13) - Most elaborate calendar of the ancient Americas. It combined two kinds rears into one system: a solar year of 365 days governed the agricultural cycle, and a ritual year of 260 s governed daily affairs by organizing time into twenty "months" of thirteen days apiece.

Maya ballgame (p. 112) - Popular game of the Mayans who inherited it from the Olmecs; served not only sporting purpose but also figured in Maya political and religious rituals.

Mesoamerica (p. 105) - Region from the central portion of modem Mexico to Honduras and El Salvador.

Mochica Ceramics (p. 119) - Painted pottery vessels of the Mochican people of the Andean region; contained detailed and expressive depictions of early Andean society in all its variety.

Mochica (pp. 118-19) - One of the Andean states, located in the valley of the Moche River; dominated coasts and valleys of northern Peru during the period from about 300 to 700 C.E.

Oceania (p. 120) - Designation refers to most of the islands in the Pacific Ocean; subdivisions include Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia, Australia and New Zealand.

Olmecs (pp. 105-106) - First complex society of the Americas, with its center located on the coast of the Gulff of Mexico, near the modem Mexican city of Veracruz; cultural traditions influenced all complex societies of Mesoamerica until the arrival of European peoples in the 16th century C.E.

outrigger canoes (p. 121) - Large canoes equipped with beams and sails; used by Austronesian peoples in their sailing to stabilize their crafts and reduce the risks of long voyages.

Popol Vuh (pp. 112-13) - A Maya creation myth; taught that the gods had created human beings out of maize and water, the ingredients that became human flesh and blood.

pyramid of the sun (pp. 114-15) - Largest building in Mesoamerica, occupying nearly as much space as the pyramid of Khufu in Egypt, though it stands only half as tall. It was built by 100 C.E., in the city of Teotihuacan.

San Lorenzo, La Aventa, Tres Zapotes (p. 105) - Three early Olmec ceremonial centers, dating from 1200 to 800 B.C.E., 800 to 400 B.C.E., and 400 to 100 B.C.E., respectively.

Teotihuacan (pp. 114-16) - Mesoamerican city northeast of modem Mexico city; inherited Olmec cultural traditions; flourished from 200 B.C.E. to 750 C.E.


Chapter 6

Significant Individuals

Alexander of Macedon (p. 138) - Often called Alexander the Great. Alexander invaded Persia in 334 B.C.E., decisively defeating a much larger Persian force with his Macedonian army. He proclaimed himself heir to the Achaemedids, and captured (and perhaps also purposely burned) their capital at Persepolis.

Cambyses (p. 134) - Cyrus's son, succeeded the throne of his father and expanded the Achaemenid empire by conquering Egypt in 525 B.C.E. Reigned from 530 to 522 B.C.E.

Croesus (p. 13 1) - Ruler of the powerful and wealthy kingdom of Lydia in southwestern Anatolia (modem-day Turkey). Launched an invasion in Persia in 546 B.C.E., but was badly defeated by the Persian armies led by Cyrus. Croesus was taken captive and afterward became an advisor to Cyrus.

Cyrus (pp. 131, 133-34) - Founder of the Achaemenid empire, extended it from India to the borders of Egypt through military conquests. Reigned 558-530 B.C.E.

Darius (pp. 34-35) - Third ruler of the Achaeminid empire, ext3ended the empire to the Indus River in the east and the western coast of the Black Sea in the west. The central rule of the imperial administration was well-established during Darius's reign, which lasted from 521-to 486 B.C.E.

Gimillu (p. 143) - A slave of the Achaemenid empire, lived in mid- to late 6Ib century B.C.E. and served the temple community of Eanna in Uruk- Became known because records of his various misadventures survive in archives. By the records, he habitually defrauded his masters, pocketed bribes, and embezzled temple funds. With his personal talent and protection of some powerful individuals, however, he always managed to escape serious punishment.

Mithradates I (p. 139) - Parthians' greatest conqueror; came to the throne about 171 B.C.E. Under his rule, the Parthian state extended into a mighty empire covering Iran and Mesopotamia.

Seleucus (P. 138) (reigned 305-281 B.C.E.) - One of Alexander of Macedon's military commanders who took the choicest part of Alexander's realm upon his death in 323 B.C.E.; this included most of the former Achaemenid empire.

Shapur I (p. 140) - Ruler of the Sasanid empire, reigned 239-272 C.E. His rule stabilized the western frontier by creating a series of buffer states between the Sasanids and the Roman empire. Shapur even defeated several Roman armies and settled the prisoners in Iran, where they devoted their famous engineering skills to the construction of roads and dams.

Xerxes (p. 137) - Successor of Darius, reigned 486-465 B.C.E. Sought to impose his own values on conquered lands, retreated from Darius's policy of cultural toleration, and caused ill will and rebellions of the peoples under the rule of the Achaemenid empire.

Chapter Glossary

Achaemenid empire (pp. 132-38) - First Persian empire, founded by Cyrus and Darius in southwestern Asia. By the late 6ffi century B.C.E., it was the largest empire the world had yet seen, with boundaries extending from the Indus River in the east to the Aegean Sea in the west, and from the Armenian hills in the north to the first cataract of the Nile in the south. Lasted from 558 to 330 B.C.E.

Ahura Mazda (p. 145) - "The wise lord," the supreme deity worshipped by Zoroastrians. In the compositions of Zarathustra, the founder of the Zoroastrian religion, Ahura Mazda engaged in a cosmic conflict with an independent adversary, an evil and malign spirit known as Angra Mainyu, a struggle that would continue for twelve thousand years.

Avesta (P. 146) - Holy scriptures of Zoroastrianism, compiled during the Sasanid empire.

Ctesiphon (p. 139) - Capital city of the Parthian, Sasanid, and Seleucid empires, located on the Euphrates River near modem Baghdad.

Gathas (pp. 145-46) - Zarathustra's own works, hymns that he composed in honor of the various deities that he recognized.

haoma (p. 145) - Hallucinogenic agent used by early Persian priests during the performance of their rituals, probably the same substance used by the early Aryan priests which they called soma.

magi (p. 146) - Tenn for Zoroastrian priests.

Medes and Persians (p. 132) - Two closely related Indo-European peoples who migrated from central Asia to Persia (the southwestern portion of modem-day Iran) before 1000 B.C.E., where they lived in loose subjection to the Babylonian and Assyrian empires. Mostly pastoralists, they organized themselves by clans. Persians overthrew their Median overlord and extended their territory to an enormous empire during the 6th century B.C.E.

Parthian empire (pp. 138-39) - Third Persian empire. Established by the Parthians, lasted from 247 B.C.E. to 224 C.E. Portrayed themselves as enemies of the foreign Seleucids and restorers of the Persian tradition. People's rebellions from within and Roman military pressure from without eventually brought the Parthian empire down.

Parthians (pp. 138-39) - Nomadic people who migrated from the steppes of central Asia to eastern Iran around Khurasan from Achaemenid times, famous for their heavy cavalry. Revolted against their Seleucid overlord in 238 B.C.E., and extended their state to a mighty empire covering Iran and Mesopotamia.

Persepolis (p. 135) - Capital of the Achaemenid empire, near Pasargadae. Structures at Persepolis included vast reception halls, lavish royal residences, and a well-protected treasury. Burned by Alexander of Macedon during the 40' century B.C.E.

Persian Royal Road (p. 136) - Built during Darius's reign, stretched some 2,575 kilometers (1,600 miles) from the Aegean port of Ephesus to Sardis in Anatolia, through Mesopotamia along the Tigris River, to Susa in Iran, with an extension to Pasargadae and Persepolis.

Persian Wars (p. 137) - Wars between the city states of the Greeks and the Achaemenid empire from 500 to 479 B.C.E. The Greeks successfully resisted Persian invasions and maintained their independence.

qanat (p. 142) - Underground canals of the Persian empires, built for irrigation purposes. Qanat enabled cultivators to distribute water to fields without losing large quantities to evaporation through exposure to the sun and open air.

Chapter 7

Significant Individuals

Ban Zhao (p. 170) - Well-educated woman from a prominent Han family; wrote a widely read treatise entitled Admonitions for Women that emphasized humility, obedience, subservience, and devotion to their husbands as the virtues most appropriate for women.

Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) (pp. 154-55) - Most influential thinker of classical China, honored as a age by later generations. The founder of Confucianism. Ian

Han Feizi (ca. 280-233) (p. 161) - Most influential spokesman for Legalism who synthesized Legalist ideas in a collection of powerful and well argued essays on statecraft.

Han Wudi (141-87 B.C.E.) (p. 167) - "Martial Emperor," greatest and most energetic emperor of the Han dynasty. During his rule, the centralization of imperial rule was strengthened and the territory of China extended to Vietnam, Korea, and central Asia.

Laozi (p. 158) - Founder of Daoism; lived during the sixth century B.C.E. He was believed to be the author of the first Daoist work, the Daodejing (Classic of the Way and of Virtue), but the book was certainly a contribution of many hands over several centuries after him.

Liu Bang (p. 166) - Founder of the Han dynasty, overthrew the Qin dynasty and proclaimed himself the emperor of China in 206 B.C.E.

Maodun (reigned 210-174 B.C.E.) (p. 169) - Most successful ruler of the Xiongnu; ruled a vast federation of nomadic peoples that stretched from the Aral Sea to the Yellow Sea. The well-disciplined army of Maodun was a serious threat to the Han empire.

Mencius (372-289 B.C.E.) (pp. 156-57) - Principal spokesman for the Confucian school; firmly believed in the goodness of human nature and advocated government by benevolence and humanity. His ideas deeply influenced the Confucian tradition.

Qin Shihuangdi (reigned 221-2 10 B.C.E.) (pp. 163-66) - Literally, "the First Emperor of Qin," a title that the king of Qin granted to himself after he unified China in 221 B.C.E. Under his rule, the Qin dynasty established a tradition of centralized imperial rule that would continue throughout the history of imperial China. Because of his massive public works and cruel punishments, however, he has been viewed as the most infamous tyrant in Chinese history.

Shang Yang (ca. 390-338 B.C.E.) (pp. 160-61) - Chief minister of the Qin state; one of the foremost exponents of Legalist doctrine, whose implementation of Legalist policies made the Qin a strong state.

Sima Qian (p. 153) - Historian of the Han dynasty, known as the father of Chinese historians; suffered from punitive castration when his evaluation of a dishonored general contradicted the emperor's judgment.

Wang Mang (pp. 172-73) - Usurper of the Han dynasty; seized the throne in 9 C.E. and introduced a series of wide-ranging reforms, prompting some modem historians to call him a "socialist emperor." Resistance from disgruntled landlords, coupled with poor harvests and famine, sparked wide-spread revolts, ending his dynasty and life in 23 C.E.

Xunzi (298-238 B.C.E.) (pp. 157-58) - Influential Confucian scholar, with a tendency toward Legalism in his ideas; believed that human nature was basically bad and selfish, so that strong social discipline was necessary to bring order to society; advocated clear, well-publicized standards of conduct; shared Confucian views of social optimism, political activism, and moral education.

Zhuangzi (369-286 B.C.E.) (p. 158) - Chinese philosopher, the second founder of Daoism, whose work, the Zhuangzi, provided a well-reasoned compendium of Daoist views.

Chapter Glossary

The Book of Lord Shang (p. 16 1) - Legalist work, contributed by Shang Yang and other Qin ministers; contained Legalist ideas and policies of the Qin state.

Confucianism (pp. 154-57) - School of thought founded by Confucius; advocated political activism and moral education as the way to save China from the chaos of the Warring States period. Politically, it was a doctrine of elitism which emphasized enlightened leadership of junzi ("superior individuals").

Xiongnu (p. 169) - Turkish speaking nomadic people from the steppes of central Asia, frequently raiding the northwest borders of China; pacified by Han Wudi's army.

The Yellow Turban Uprising (p. 173) - Peasant revolt against the Han dynasty during the 2nd century C.E. So called because the rebels wore yellow turbans on their heads. The uprising was put down, but it severely undermined the imperial rule of Han.

Chapter 8

Significant Individuals

Ashoka Maurya (p. 180) - Chandragupta's grandson, best known emperor of Mauryan dynasty, reigned 268-232 B.C.E.; conquered the kingdom of Kalinga through a bloody campaign in 260 B.C.E. Converted to Buddhism and sponsored the new religion throughout his empire. His rule represented the highest point of the Mauryan empire in terms of territory and central administration.

Chandra Gupta (p. 182) - Founder of the Gupta empire who rose to power in Magadha about 320 C.E. (Note: He was not related to Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of Mauryan empire)

Chandragupta Maurya (p. 179) - King, of the state of Magadha and founder of the Mauryan empire. Rose to power in north India after Alexander's army withdrew from the region. Tradition holds that he abdicated his throne for an existence so ascetic that he starved himself to death.

Faxian (P. 183) - Chinese Buddhist monk who traveled widely in India searching for texts of the Buddhist scriptures during the reign of Chandra Gupta II (reigned 375-415 C.E.). His accounts left valuable records for the reconstruction of Indian history.

Kautalya (p. 179) - Advisor or minister of Chandragupta's government who devised administrative procedures and diplomatic strategies for the Mauryan empire. Some of his advice and ideas survived in the political handbook known as the Arthashastra.

Megasthenes (p. 177) - Greek ambassador who lived in India during late 4h and early 3rd centuries B.C.E. Wrote a book, Indika, which portrayed India as a wealthy land that supported a distinctive society with well-established cultural traditions.

Siddhartha Gautama (p. 189) - Founder of Buddhism; born to a kshatriya family about 563 B.C.E.; sought enlightenment through intense meditation and extreme asceticism, and received enlightenment under a bo tree; taught that enlightenment could be achieved only by abandoning desires for all earthly things.

Vardhamana Mahavira (p. 187) - The great teacher of Jainism, born in northern India about 540 B.C.E. to a prominent kshatriya family; taught an ascetic doctrine of detachment from the world and formed a monastic order to perpetuate and spread his message. His disciples referred to him as Jina, "the conqueror," and referred to themselves as Jains.

Chapter Glossary

ahimsa (p. 188) - Jainist principle, meaning nonviolence toward other living things or their souls. To observe this principle, devout Jainist monks went to extremes to avoid harming the millions of souls they encountered each day.

Arthashastra (p. 179) - Political handbook containing Kautalya's and others' advice to the Gupta dynasty regarding principles of government. It outlined methods of administering the empire, overseeing trade and agriculture, collecting taxes, maintaining order, conducting foreign relations, waging war, and obtaining information through spies.

Bhagavad Gita (p. 194) - "Song of the Lord," a short poetic work of India, also an episode of the Mahabharata. The work contained a dialogue between a warrior and the god Vishnu, which clearly illustrated both the expectations and promise of Hinduism for its believers.

boddhisatya (p. 192) - "The enlightened being," a Buddhist concept referring to individuals who had reached spiritual perfection and merited the reward of nirvana but who intentionally delayed their entry into nirvana in order to hl others who were still struggling; a notion articulated by Mahayana Buddhist theologians between the 3rd and lst century C.E.

Bodh Gaya (p. 19 1) - One of the holy sites of Buddhism, a place where Gautama received enlightenment under a bo tree.

Buddha (p. 189) - "The enlightened one," a title referring to Siddhartha Gautama, the creator of Buddhism.

Buddhism (p. 190) - One of the world religions originating in India during the 6th century B.C.E.; founded by Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha. Its fundamental doctrine was based on the Four Noble Truths taught by the Buddha. The religious goal was to achieve personal salvation called nirvana, a state of perfect spiritual independence. To achieve this goal, Buddhism stressed reducing desires for material goods and other worldly attractions.

Charvaka (p. 187) - Anti-religious sect of classical India which believed in atheistic materialism: The gods were figments of the imagination, brahmins were charlatans who enriched themselves by hoodwinking others, and human beings came from dust and returned to dust like any other animal in the natural world. This sect did not achieve long-lasting popularity.

Deer Park of Sarnath (p. 191) One of the Buddhist holy sites where Buddha preached his first sermon in 528 B.C.E.

dharma (p. 190) - Basic doctrine shared by Buddhists of all sects, including the teachings of the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path.

Gupta empire (pp. 182-83) - The second Indian empire, founded by the Gupta family during the 4th century C.E. Extended to all but the southern regions of the Indian subcontinent. Less centralized than Mauryan empire.

Hinayana (p. 193) - Pejorative term for Theravada, Buddhism; literally meant "the lesser vehicle," so called because of its strict adherence to the original Buddha's teachings and monastic life, which, by the later Mahayana standard, could only carry a few monks to salvation. In later centuries, Theravada Buddhism became popular in Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, and other parts of southeast Asia.

Hinduism (pp. 194-96) - Most popular religion of salvation in India, drawing inspiration from the Vedas and Upanishads. Basic teachings included the four principal aims of human life: obedience to religious and moral laws (dharma); the pursuit of economic well-being and honest prosperity (artha); the enjoyment of social, physical, and sexual pleasure (kama); and the salvation of the soul (moksha).

Jainism (pp. 187-88) - One of the most influential Indian religions; became popular beginning in the late 5h century B.C. Taught that everything possessed a soul and the practice of nonviolence toward other living things or their souls. Represented an alternative to the traditional cults of brahmins.

Kalinga (p. 180) - Indian kingdom located in the east-central part of the subcontinent (modem Orissa). Maintained hostility toward the Mauryan empire while controlling several principal trade routes of India. Lost its independence to emperor Ashoka Maurya after a bloody war in 260 B.C.E.

Magadha (pp. 178-79) - Regional kingdom of India, located in the central portion of the Ganges plain. It developed into the Mauryan empire in 321 B.C.E.

Mahabharata and Ramayana (p. 194) - Two great Indian epics. Originally these were secular tales transmitted orally during the late years of the Vedic age (1500-500 B.C.E.). The Mahabharata dealt with a massive war over control of northern India between two groups of cousins; the Ramayana was originally a love and adventure story involving the trials faced by the legendary Prince Rama and his loyal wife Sita. Revised later by brahmin scholars to bear Hindu values.

Mahayana (pp. 191-93) - one of two major subdividing trends in Buddhist belief Believers in the Mahayana tradition shared with other Buddhists certain basic concepts in Buddhist doctrine, but articulated the notion of the boddhisatva, individuals who intentionally delayed their entry into nirvana to help others struggling to get there. Theologians in this tradition began to teach that boddhisatvas could perform good deeds on behalf of others, thus opening up the possibility of salvation to the masses. Mahayana literally meant "the greater vehicle," so called because it could carry more people to salvation. In later centuries, Mahayana Buddhism also became established in central Asia, China, Korea, and Japan.

The Mauryan empire (pp. 178-82) - First Indian empire, representing a temporary unification of India, lasting from 321 to 185 B.C.E.; unified almost the entire Indian subcontinent except the southernmost region.

Nalanda (p. 193) - Famous Buddhist monastery, founded during the Gupta dynasty in the Ganges River valley near Pataliputra. The monastery was an educational center which attracted many pilgrims and students from foreign lands to study with the most renowned masters of Buddhist doctrine.

nirvana (p. 190) - Religious goal of Buddhism, a state of perfect spiritual independence, an escape from the cycle of incarnation.

Pataliputra (pp. Capital for both Mauryan and Gupta empires, the fortified city near modern Patina.

stupas (p. 191) - Shrines housing relics of the Buddha and his first disciples; became the objects of pilgrim worship of Buddhists.

"Turning of the Wheel of the Law" (p. 190) - A term used by early Buddhists to refer to the first sermon by the Buddha at the Deer Park of Sarnath about 528 B.C.E., so called because the sermon represented the beginning of the Buddha's quest to promulgate the law of righteousness. 77, 180-81)

White Huns (p. 183) - Nomadic people from central Asia, a branch of the Xiongnu; occupied Bactria during the fourth century C.E. and crossed the Hindu Kush mountains into India. Their invasions of India seriously weakened the Gupta empire.

Chapter 9

Significant Individuals

Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides (p. 22 1) - Great tragedians of classical Greece, lived in the 5th century B.C.E.

Alexander of Macedon (pp. 2 10-11) - Successor of Philip II; successfully conquered Egypt, Persia, and north India; died in 323 B.C.E. at age of thirty-three.

Aristophanes (p. 221) Famous comic dramatist of classical Greece.

Aristotle (p. 220) - Greek philosopher; Plato's pupil and teacher of Alexander of Macedon; believed that philosophers could rely on their senses to provide accurate information about the world and then depend on reason to sort out its mysteries; devised rigorous rules of logic as means of constructing compelling arguments.

Homer (p. 199) - The Iliad and the Odyssey are ascribed to him. Scholars now know that the two epic poems had been recited for generations before Homer lived. Some experts believe that Homer was not a real man so much as a convenient name for several otherwise anonymous scribes who committed the two epics to writing. Others believe that a man named Homer had a part in preparing a written version of the two epics, but that others also contributed significantly to his work.

Pasion (pp. 216-7) - A Greek slave of the late 5th and early 4th centuries B.C.E.; worked first as a porter and then a bank clerk. With his owners' trust and rewards, Pasion gained his freedom and became the owner of the bank. He outfitted five warships from his own pocket, and won a grant of Athenian citizenship.

Pericles (ca. 443-429 B.C.E.) (p. 205) - Statesman of Athens, popular democratic leader. Under his leadership, Athens became the most sophisticated and democratic of the Greek poleis.

Philip II (p. 210) - Ruled Macedon from 359 to 336 B.C.E.; built a powerful military machine and gained centralized -control over clans in Macedon. Later he entered into Greece, and by 338 B.C.E, he had overcome all organized resistance and brought Greece under his control. He was assassinated in 336 B.C.E.

Plato (p. 218) - Greek philosopher, pupil of Socrates; lived from 430 to 347 B.C.E.; believed that human reason or knowledge could arrive at an understanding of what he called Forms or Ideas-the ultimate perfect reality he thought underlay nature; suggested the ideal form of government ruled by a philosopher-king.

Sappho (p. 216) - Female poet of Greece, active during the years around 600 women music and literature and was charged with homosexual activity.

Socrates (p. 217) - Athenian philosopher who lived from 470 to 399 B.C.E.; tutor of Plato; encouraged rational reflection on moral and ethical issues; sought to reason through means of skeptical questioning of traditional ethical teachings. A jury of Athenian citizens condemned him to death for corrupting the minds of Athenian youths.

Solon (p. 205) - Athenian aristocrat of the 6th century B.C.E., a democratic reformer who eased class tension by compromise. His reforms forbade enslavement for debt and opened the councils of the poleis to any citizen wealthy enough to devote time to public affairs.

Chapter Glossary

Alexandria, Egypt (p. 213) - Capital of the Ptolemaic empire, founded by Alexander at the mouth of the Nile as one of many cities named to honor him; a commercial and cultural center, especially known for the sites of the famous Alexandrian Museum and Alexandria Library.

Antigonid empire (pp. 212-13) - One of the three Hellenistic empires, founded in Greece and Macedon; lasted until the Romans established their authority in the eastern Mediterranean during the 2d century B.C.E.

Athens (p. 205) - One of the most important poleis (city-states) of classical Greece, known for its democratic politics, commercial agriculture, and skills of foreign trade.

The Battle of Marathon (p. 208) - One of the two important battles of the Persian war fought between Persians and Athenians at Marathon in 490 B.C.E. The Athenians succeeded in defending themselves and defeating the Persian army and fleet.

The Battle of Salamis (p. 208) - One of the important battles of the Persian war. The battle took place in the narrow strait between Athens and the island of Salamis and resulted in the Persian navy being shattered by the Greek fleet.

Delian League (p. 209) - Alliance formed by several Greek poleis after the Persian war; Athens became the leader of the alliance, and other poleis contributed financial support, which went largely to the Athenian treasury.

Dionysus (p. 221) - The god of wine in popular religion of classical Greece, also known as Bacchus. Religious ritual in honor of Dionysus was celebrated primarily by women during the spring of the year.

Epicureans (p. 222) - Greek philosophical school of the Hellenistic era, founded by Epicurus (341-270 B.C.E.); identified pleasure as the greatest good, which meant a state of quiet satisfaction or freedom from emotional turmoil and pressure of the Hellenistic world.

Hellenistic empires (p. 212) - Three Greek empires formed from the Macedonian empire after Alexander's death: the three empires were the Antigonids, Ptolemies, and Seleucids.

Hellenistic Era (p. 212) - Historians refer to the age of Alexander and his successors as the Hellenistic era-an age when Greek cultural traditions expanded their influence beyond Greece itself (Hellas) to a much larger world.

helots (p. 204) - Servants of the Spartan state; served as agricultural labor to keep Sparta supplied with food. By the 6th century B.C.E., the helots probably outnumbered the Spartan citizens by more than ten to one. The helots were not slaves, but they could not leave the land.

Iliad and Odyssey (p. 199) - The great epic poems of ancient Greece, attributed to Homer; possibly the work of many authors. The Iliad offered a Greek perspective on a war waged by a band of Greek warriors against the city of Troy in Anatolia during the 12th century B.C.E. The Odyssey recounted the experiences of the Greek hero Odysseus as he sailed home after the Trojan war.

The kingdom of Macedon (pp. 209- 10) - Frontier state north of peninsular Greece which rose to prominence after the 4th century B.C.E. Population consisted partly of cultivators and partly of sheep herders. The state was loosely organized, with the king and semiautonomous clans controlling political affairs; became centralized under Philip II and served as the basis for unification of Greece and the later Macedonian empire.

Knossos (p. 200) - An important site of ancient Crete society, where an enormous complex of lavish palaces were built decorated with vivid frescos depicting Minoans at work and play.

Linear A (p. 200) - The script of Minoan society which used written symbols to stand for syllables rather than words, ideas, vowels, or consonants. So far linguists have not yet been able to decipher this script.

Linear B (p. 202) - The syllabic script used in Mycenaean society. It was an adoption of Minoan Linear A to the early forms of Greek.

Minoan society (pp. 200-20 1) - The sophisticated society of ancient Crete, lasting from 2200 to 1100 B.C.E.; received early influences from Phoenicia and Egypt and built lavish palaces at Knossos; also devised a script known as Linear A.

Mycenaean society (pp. 201-202) - The ancient society of the Greek peninsula, established by Indo- European immigrants; lasted from 1600 to I 100 B.C.E. Named after Mycenae, one of the most important settlements. Learned about writing and large-scale construction from the Cretans.

Olympic games (p. 215) - The best known of the panhellenic festivals, held once every four years beginning in 776 B.C.E. The games were observed by all Greek city-states and involved athletic contests. Winners of events received olive wreaths and became celebrated heroes in their home poleis.

panhellenic festivals (p. 215) - The festivals of the Greek world. Greeks from all parts gathered periodically to participate in the festivals that featured athletic, literary, and musical contests in which individuals sought to win glory for their poleis.

Peloponnesian War (p. 209) - Civil war of the Greek world, fought between 431 and 404 B.C.E. Poleis were divided into two armed camps under the leadership of Athens and Sparta. Resulted in Athens' unconditional surrender to Sparta, but the latter failed to achieve political unification of Greece.

Peloponnesus (p. 202) - The southern part of the Greek peninsula where massive stone fortresses and palaces were built to offer protection for small agricultural communities. Sparta became one of the most powerful poleis in the Peloponnesus.

Persian War (500-479 B.C.E.) (p. 208) - Fought between the Persian empire and Greek city-states. The Greeks successfully resisted the military assaults of Persian armies and maintained their independence from Persian control.

polis (p. 203) - City-states of classical Greece. The term polis originally referred to a citadel or fortified site that offered refuge for local communities during times of war or other emergencies. By about 800 B.C.E. these sites developed into urban centers and extended their authority over surrounding regions. Poleis (the plural of polis) functioned as the principal centers of Greek society between 800 and 338 B.C.E.

Ptolemaic empire (pp. 212-13) One of the three Hellenistic empires, founded in Egypt, which the Ptolemaic dynasty ruled until the Roman conquest of Egypt in 31 B.C.E.

The Republic (pp. 218-19) - Written by Plato; held that the ideal state was one where either philosophers ruled as kings or kings were themselves philosophers.

Seleucid empire (pp. 212-13) - One of the three Hellenistic empires, founded in the former Achaemenid empire, which was displaced by the Parthians; during the 2nd century B.C.E. In this empire, Greek influence reached its greatest extent over a wide-ranging territory stretching from the eastern Mediterranean region of Anatolia to the region of Bactria in central Asia.

skeptics (p. 222) - Greek philosophical school of the Hellenistic era; doubted the possibility of certain knowledge, and sought equanimity. Sparta (p. 204) - One of the most important poleis in classical Greece, located in the fertile southeastern region of the Peloponnesus; known for its oligarchic regime, austere lifestyle, and commitment to military values.

stoics (p. 222) - Group of Greek philosophers of the Hellenistic era; emphasized inner moral independence and tranquillity cultivated by strict discipline of the body and mind.

Trojan war (p. 202) Legendary war between the Mycenaeans and the city of Troy in Anatolia about 1200 B.C.E.

Zeus (p. 220) - The grandson of the earth and sky gods and the paramount ruler of the divine realm in the popular religion of classical Greece. Zeus's heavenly court included scores of subordinate deities who had various responsibilities.

Chapter 10

Significant Individuals

Augustus (pp.233-34) - Title given to Octavian after his defeat of the navy of Mark Antony in 31 B.C.E.; the creator and first emperor of the Roman empire.

Epictetus (p. 241) - Anatolian slave who became a prominent Stoic philosopher. Lectured to large audiences that included high Roman officials and perhaps even emperors; 1st century C.E.

Gaius Marius (p. 232) - Prominent Roman general at the turn of the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C.E.; introduced the concept of a private army recruited from paid volunteers, mostly landless rural residents and urban workers, rather than citizen conscripts from among the -small farmers; the innovation created a military force with personal loyalties to the military commander instead of to civilian authorities.

Gracchi brothers (pp. 231-32) - Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, tribunes who represented the interests of Rome's lower classes; zealously promoted land reform and proposed to extend full Roman citizenship to peoples in most of the Italian peninsula; both killed on the command of the Roman elite, Tiberius in 132 B.C.E. and Gaius in 121 B.C.E. 126,

Jesus of Nazareth (pp. 244-45) - Charismatic Jewish teacher, founder of Christianity; taught devotion to God and love for fellow human beings; viewed as a threat by Roman authorities and was executed in the early 30s C.E. After death, his followers called him "Christ," meaning "the anointed one," the savior who would bring individuals into the kingdom of God.

Jlius Caesar (p. 233) - Nephew of the general Marius, and himself a reform-minded general of Rome, responsible for conquest of Gaul in the 50s of the 1st century B.C.E.; brought his army back to Rome and overthrew the republic in 49 B.C.E.; claimed himself a life-time dictator in 46 B.C.E., but was assassinated by the wealthy elite class in 44 B.C.E.

Lucius Cornelius Sulla (p. 232) - Conservative Roman general during the last century B.C.E.; imposed an extremely conservative legislative program that undid the influence of Marius and strengthened the hand of the wealthy in Roman politics.

Marcus Tullius Cicero (p. 242) - Roman philosopher, who helped to establish Stoicism as the most prominent school of moral philosophy in Rome.

Octavian (pp. 233-34) - Grandnephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar; defeated his principle rival, Mark Antony (who had joined forces with Cleopatra, last of the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt) in 31 B.C.E.; the Senate bestowed upon him the title Augustus in 27 B.C.E.; became the first Roman emperor and ruled Rome for 45 years.

Paul of Tarsus (p. 245) - Jew from Anatolia who zealously preached Christianity throughout the Roman empire; called for individuals to observe high moral standards and to place their faith ahead of personal and family interests; promised a glorious future existence for those who conscientiously observed the faith. He was executed by Roman authorities.

Spartacus (p. 241) - Roman slave, escaped and assembled an army of seventy thousand rebellious slaves in 73 B.C.E.

Chapter Glossary

Carthage (p. 230) - A city-state originally established as a Phoenician colony in north Africa, located near modem Tunis; became the dominant political and commercial power in the western Mediterranean; Fought the Punic War with Rome for hegemony over the western Mediterranean regions.

Etruscans (p. 227) - A band of Indo-European people who migrated to the Italian peninsula probably from Anatolia; established a powerful kingdom that dominated much of Italy from the 8th to the 6th centuries B.C.E.

Essenes (p. 244) - Sect of Judaism; observed a strict moral code and participated in rituals designed to reinforce a sense of community; shared many concerns with early Christianity, especially the notion that a savior would deliver them from Roman rule.

Gauls (pp. 229, 23 3) - A powerful Celtic people who lived in Gaul (modem France); invaded Italy on several occasions during the 5th century B.C.E. In the 50s of the first century B.C.E., Caesar conquered Gaul and brought it into the Roman empire.

Jupiter (p. 242) - Principal god of Rome, believed to be lord of the heavens.

latifundia (p.231) - Large plantations owned by the wealthy elite and operated by slave labor in Rome.

Mithraism (p. 243) - Cult dedicated to Mithras; originally a Zoroastrian god closely identified with the sun and light. Roman soldiers serving in the Hellenistic world adapted it and associated Mithras with military values such as strength, courage, and discipline.

paterfamilias (pp. 239-40) - "Father of the family," who by Roman law had the authority to arrange marriages for his children, determine the work or duties of all family members, and punish them for offenses as he saw fit. He also had the right to sell family members into slavery and even to execute them.

patricians (p. 228) - Hereditary aristocrats and wealthy classes of the Roman republic who dominated Roman political and economic life, electing an assembly who selected two consuls and serving as members of the Senate, an advisory body to the consuls.

pax romana (p. 236) - "Roman peace," an era of peace inaugurated by Augustus's rule that persisted for two and a half centuries.

plebeians (p. 228) - Common people or ordinary citizens of Rome, whose tribunes gained political power in struggle against the patricians.

Punic Wars (p. 230) - Three devastating conflicts between Romans and Carthaginians over political and commercial supremacy in the western Mediterranean regions fought between 264 and 146 B.C.E. The rivalry ended after Roman forces razed the city of Carthage, salted the surrounding earth to render it unfit for agriculture and settlement, and forced many of the survivors into slavery.

Romulus and Remus (p. 226) - Twin brothers in the ancient Roman legends, who were raised by a kindly she-wolf and grew up as strong and courageous men. According to the legends, Romulus founded the city of Rome and became its first king in 753 B.C.E.

Senate (p. 228) - A political body of Roman aristocrats; the members included Rome's most prominent political and military leaders; advised the consuls and ratified all major decisions. Together with the consuls, the Senate largely controlled public affairs in early years of Roman republic.

tribunes (p. 228) - Official representatives of plebeians in the Roman government; had the power to intervene in all political matters and possessed the right to veto measures that they judged unfair.

Chapter 11

Significant Individuals

Attila (p. 268) -Warrior king of the Huns. From the mid-5th century C.E., under his leadership the Huns invaded Hungary, probed Roman frontiers in the Balkan region, menaced Gaul and northern Italy, and attacked Germanic peoples living on the borders of the Roman empire.

Alaric (p. 268) - The leader of the Visigoths; under his command, the Visigoths sacked the city of Rome in 4 10 C.E.

Constantine (p. 266) - Roman emperor, known for his unification of the Roman empire after it was divided by Diocletian into two administrative districts; established Constantinople as the new capital city; also known as the first Christian emperor of the Roman empire, whose Edict of Milan in 313 C. E. allowed Christians to practice their faith openly.

Diocletian (284-305 C.E.) (p. 266) - Roman emperor, known for his division of the empire into two administrative districts, each ruled by a coemperor with the aid of a powerful lieutenant.

Gregory the Wonderworker (p. 259) - Tireless Christian missionary with a reputation for performing miracles; popularized Christianity in central Anatolia during the mid-third century C.E.

Mani (p. 260) - Founder of Manichaeism; a devout Zoroastrian prophet from Babylon in Mesopotamia who drew religious inspiration from Christianity and Buddhism; lived from 216 to 272 C.E.

Odovacer (p. 268) - Germanic general; in 476 C.E., deposed Romulus Augustus, the last Roman emperor in the western half of the empire.

St. Augustine (354-430 C.E.) (pp. 269-70) - Bishop of Hippo in north Africa; well educated in philosophy; harmonized Christianity with Platonic thought so that Christianity could be easily appreciated by intellectuals and the educated classes.

Theodosius (pp. 268-69) - Emperor of the Byzantine empire, known for his proclamation that made Christianity the official religion of the empire in 380 C.E.

Zhang Qian (pp. 249-50) - A courtier of the Han dynasty who was sent by the emperor to central Asia to arrange for allies against the Xiongnu in 139 B.C.E; twice captured by the Xiongnu but finally managed to escape and return to China twelve years later; became a hero known for his unwavering loyalty to the emperor. His travels contributed to the opening of the silk roads.

Chapter Glossary

barracks emperors (p. 266) - Claimants to the imperial throne of the Roman empire, mostly generals, who frequently replaced one another in a violent manner during the half century from 235 to 284 C.E.

Byzantine empire (p. 268) - The eastern half of the Roman empire which survived invasions of Germanic peoples in the 5h century C.E. and lasted for about one millennium thereafter. The capital city was Constantinople.

church councils (p. 270) - Assemblies of religious authorities of Christianity, held to resolve theological disputes among Christians and determine official doctrines. The City of God (p. 270) - The famous work of St. Augustine which sought to explain the meaning of history and the world from a Christian point of view.

dioceses (p. 270) - Christian districts presided over by bishops; present in all the prominent cities of the Roman empire from the fourth century C.E. onward.

Edict of Milan (p. 268) - Issued by emperor Constantine in 313 C.E., a proclamation that made Christianity a legitimate religion in the Roman empire.

Germanic peoples (p. 267) - Originally the nomadic peoples of northern Europe, including Visigoths, Vandals, Franks, Ostrogoths, Angles and Saxons, and Lombards. Migrated to the eastern and northern borders of the Roman empire from the second century C.E.; beginning in the mid-5th century, invaded the western Roman empire and deposed the emperor there in 476; settled in Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and north Africa.

Manichaeism (p. 260) - Religious sect founded by Mani in the 31d century C.E.; doctrine sought to blend Zoroastrian, Christian, and Buddhist elements into one religious faith; viewed the world as the site of a cosmic struggle between the forces of light and darkness, good and evil. Taught followers to reject worldly pleasure as a way to achieve personal salvation and eternal association with the forces of light and good. Devout Manichaeans were called "the elect" while the less zealous ones were "hearers." This doctrine attracted converts in Mesopotamia and the Roman empire but survived only in central Asia after the 6th century C.E.

monsoon system (p. 252) - Trading network of the Indian basin linking India and Arabia in the east and Egypt and the Mediterranean basin in the west by the way of the Red Sea; so called because merchant seamen relied on the monsoon winds to govern their sailing and shipping in the Indian Ocean.

Nestorians (pp. 259-60) - Sect of Christianity founded by the Greek theologian Nestorius during the early 5th century C.E.; doctrine emphasized the human as opposed to the divine nature of Jesus; rejected by Mediterranean church authorities but found large following in southwest Asia. Via the silk roads the Nestorians established communities in central Asia, India, and China.

The pope (p. 270) - From the Latin word papa ("father"); bishop of Rome who emerged as a spiritual leader of Christian communities after the collapse of western Roman empire.

silk roads (pp. 250, 252-55) - Network of trade routes that linked much of Eurasia and north Africa through land routes and sea lanes; so called because high-quality silk from China was one of the principal commodities exchanged over the roads. 138

Chapter 12

Significant Individuals<BR>
Basil II (976-1025 C.E.) (p. 286) - Byzantine emperor, known as "Basil the Bulgar Slayer" for his successful campaign against the neighboring Bulgars. After his victory at the battle of Kleidion in 1014 C.E., Basil reportedly commanded his forces to blind fourteen thousand Bulgarian survivors.

Belisarius (p. 284) - Brilliant general of the Justinian reign; launched military campaigns to reconquer western Europe in 533 and brought Italy, Sicily, northwestern Africa, and southern Spain under control of the Byzantine empire.

Charlemagne (p. 286) - Frankish ruler, received an imperial crown from the pope in Rome in 800, and thus directly challenged Byzantine claims to imperial authority over the western lands of the former Roman empire.

Justinian, 527-565 C.E. (p. 283) - Byzantine emperor, known for his campaign of rebuilding Constantinople, his codification of Roman law, and his military campaigns that succeeded in control of Italy, Sicily, Northwestern Africa, and southern Spain.

Liudprand of Cremona (p. 287) - Ambassador dispatched by Otto of Saxony to Constantinople in 968. His contempt toward Byzantium revealed tense relations between western Europe and the Byzantine empire,

Prince Vladimir (p. 300) - Ruler of Russian kingdom of Kiev; converted himself and his kingdom to Orthodox Christianity in 989.

St. Basil(329-379 C.E.) (p. 294) - Patriarch of Constantinople whose effort to reform and regulate Byzantine monasteries contributed to the spread of Basilian monasticism throughout the empire.

Sts. Cyril and Methodius (p. 299) - Two brothers from Thessaloniki in Greece who were sent as missionaries by Byzantine government to Bulgaria and Moravia (which included much of the modem Czech, Slovakian, and Hungarian territories) during the mid-9th century; responsible for creating an alphabet, known as the Cyrillic alphabet, for previously illiterate Slavic peoples.

Theodora (p. 283) -Wife of emperor Justinian; offered advice on sensitive political, diplomatic, and theological issues

Chapter Glossary

Bulgaria (pp. 286, 299) - Powerful kingdom in northern portions of Balkan peninsula; exerted constant pressure on borders of the Byzantine empire; defeated by emperor Basil II at the battle of Kleidion in 1014 C.E.; development strongly influenced by Byzantium.

Byzantine empire (p. 280) - Eastern half of the Roman empire, named after Byzantion--latinized as Byzantium-a modest market town and fishing village. The emperor Constantine designated Byzantion as the site of a new imperial capital, Constantinople. Beginning in the 7th century, it lost Palestine, Syria, and Egypt to Islam. Collapsed in 1453 under the attack of Ottoman Turks.

Caesaropapism (p. 282) - Refers to the domination of imperial rule over Christianity in the Byzantine empire; emperors not only ruled as secular lords but also played an active and prominent role in ecclesiastical affairs.

Constantinople (p. 280) - Literally, "city of Constantine." Capital of the Byzantine empire built under the Roman emperor Constantine. In 1453, fell to the Ottoman Turks who renamed it Istanbul.

Corpus iuris civilis (p. 283) - "Body of the Civil Law," codified under emperor Justinian; influenced civil law codes throughout much of western Europe.

Eastern Orthodox church (pp. 295-96) - Christian church of the Byzantine empire after the schism of Christianity in 1054 C.E. Its theology reflected the strong and continuing influence of classical Greek philosophy.

The fourth crusade (1202-1204) (p. 297) - Expedition originally intended to recapture Jerusalem and other sites holy to Christians from Muslims, but diverted by Venetian merchants to the sacking of Constantinople in 1204. Byzantine forces recaptured the capital in 1261.

Greek fire (pp. 285-86) - A devastating incendiary weapon consisting of a mixture of sulphur, lime, and petroleum; utilized effectively by Byzantine forces against Islamic invaders during the late 7th and early 8th centuries.

Greens and Blues (p. 290) - Two factions of fans for chariot races in Constantinople before the 7th century. Often fought in the streets against each other, but in 532 the two factions united to protest
against high taxes. The rioters seized the Hippodrome (the large stadium for chariot racing) and proclaimed a new emperor. The uprising was quelled and thousands of rioters were killed by the govermnent army.

Hagia Sophia (p. 283) - Magnificent church constructed in Constantinople during the reign of Justinian. Later became a mosque and a museum, which ranks as one of the world's most important examples of Christian architecture.

iconoclasm (p. 293) - Byzantine imperial policy inaugurated by emperor Leo III (re. 717-741 C.E.) to destroy religious images and prohibit their use in churches. Debates about iconoclasm raged in Byzantium for more than a century.

Kiev (p. 300) - Trading center in southern Russia, situated on the Dnieper River along the main trade route linking Scandinavia and Byzantium. Through Kiev, the Russian kingdom dominated much of the territory between the Volga and the Dnieper from the 10th to the 13th century.

Normans (p. 296) - A Scandinavian people who seized Normandy (in northern France) during the early 11th century and settled there. Within a few decades, Norman armies led by Robert Guiscard took over southern Italy and expelled Byzantine authorities there.

Ottoman Turks (p. 297) - Muslim Turks who captured Constantinople in 1453 and absorbed Byzantium into their expanding Ottoman empire.

Roman Catholic church (p. 295) - Christian church of western Europe after 1054 C.E., presenting opposing doctrinal positions to those of the Eastern Orthodox church of the Byzantine empire.

Saljuqs (p. 297) - One of the nomadic Turkish peoples who invaded the Byzantine empire in the 11th century. In 1071, they defeated the Byzantine army at the battle of Manzikert and took over much of Anatolia.

theme (p. 285) - Administrative organization of the Byzantine empire devised to strengthen the free peasantry. Each province (theme) was under the control of a general who assumed responsibility for both military defense and civil administration. Generals recruited armies from free peasants who received allotments of land in exchange for military service.


Chapter 13

Significant Individuals

Abu al-Abbas (p. 312) - Descendant of Muhammad's uncle; allied with Shias and with non-Arab Muslims to launch rebellion against the Umayyad dynasty; founded the Abbasid dynasty that lasted from 750 to 1258 C.E.

Abu Bakr (p. 309) - The prophet Muhammad's close fiiend and devoted disciple; after Muhammad's death, became the first caliph of the Islamic community.

al-Ghazall (p. 324) - Persian theologian and famous Islamic Sufi (1058-1111); argued that Greek philosophy and human reasoning were vain pursuits that would inevitably lead to confusion rather than understanding, and only through devotion to Allah and guidance from the Quran could human beings begin to appreciate the uniqueness and power of Allah.

Harun al-Rashid (p. 313) - One of the famous caliphs whose reign (786-808 C.E.) brought the Abbasid dynasty to its high point; known for his support of artists and writers, lavish living, and luxurious gifts; his death led to civil war over succession between his sons seriously damaging Abbasid authority.

Ibn Rushd (p. 324) - Twelfth century Muslim philosopher (1126-1198), known in the west as Averroes; followed Aristotle and sought to articulate a purely rational understanding of the world; had profound influence on the development of European scholasticism during the 13th century.

Khadija (p. 305) - First wife of Muhanunad, a wealthy widow in Mecca. Muhammad (p. 305) -

Muhammad ibn Abdullah (570-632 C.E.), founder and prophet of Islam; born in Mecca; received revelations from Allah about 610 C.E. and by his own understanding and account, became the last prophet of Allah. 163

Chapter Glossary

Abbasid (p. 312) - Islamic dynasty founded by Abu al-Abbas after the Umayyad dynasty; ruled the dar al-Islam from Baghdad from 750 to 1258 C.E.

al-Andalus (p. 319) - Islamic Spain; established by Muslim Berber conquerors from north Africa during the early 80' century; refused to recognize the Abbasid dynasty and styled themselves caliphs in their own right from the 10th century. Allah (p. 305)

Islam. "The god; supreme god who ruled the universe in the strictly monotheistic religion of Islam.

Arabian Nights (p. 322) - Also known as The Thousand and One Nights; collection of popular tales of adventure and romance set in the Abbasid empire and the court of Harun al-Rashid.

Arabic numerals (p. 323) - The numerical system of India by Arabs westward; included a symbol for zero and contributed to the development of mathematical thought.

Baghdad (p. 312) - Capital of the Abbasid dynasty (also capital of modem Iraq); a magnificent city that the early Abbasid caliphs built near the Sasanid capital of Ctesiphon; protected by three round walls.

Bedouin (p. 304) - Nomadic people of the Arabian peninsula; society based on herding of sheep, goats, and camels; organized themselves through kinship networks such as family and clan; became the earliest converts to Islam.

caliph (p. 309) - Literally means "deputy"; head of the state, religious leader, chief judge, and military commander of the Islamic world.

dar al-Islam (p. 304) - Arabic term for "house of Islam," referring to the many lands of varied cultural background under Islamic rule.

Five Pilars (pp. 308-309) - Religious duties obligatory for all Muslims, including monotheistic belief in Allah, daily prayer, fasting during the month of Ramadan, zakat or alms contributions, and hajj, or pilgrimage.

Hadith - A collection of the sayings of the Prophet Muhammad that were used to supplement the revelations contained in the Quran.

Hajj. (pp. 303, 308, 322) - Holy pilgrimage to Mecca to worship at the Ka'ba. In 632, Muhammad's visit to the Ka'ba changed the pagan shrine into an Islamic holy site and the hajj into an Islamic tradition. One of the Five Pillars of Islam required that each Muslim with physical and financial capability must undertake the hajj and make at least one pilgrimage to Mecca.

hijra (p.307) - "Migration"; refers to the flight of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Yathrib (Medina) in 622 C.E.; recognized as the beginning of the official Islamic calendar.

Hindi numerals (p. 323) - Indian numerical system known in the west as Arabic numerals because European peoples learned the Indian symbols through Arab Muslims.

Islam (p. 303) - "Submission"; major world religion founded by Muhammad ibn Abdullah in the Arabian peninsula; required obedience to the rule and will of Allah, the only god recognized by the believers. 164

jizya (p. 311) - Special head tax levied by Arab conquerors on those who did not convert to Islam during the Umayyad dynasty.

madrasas (p. 321) - Institutions of higher education of Islamic world; appeared in the 10th century and became common in major Islamic cities during the 12th century.

Mecca (pp. 303, 307) - Arabian city located on the west coast of the Red Sea; original home of Muhammad; holy site of the Ka'ba, and became chief religious pilgrimage point in the Islamic world beginning with Muhammad's visit in 632.

Muslim (P. 303) - "One who has submitted"; a Muslim is a believer in Islam.

qadis (p. 312) - "Judges" and moral authorities of Islamic communities; heard legal cases and rendered decisions based on the Quran and sharia.

Quran (p. 306) - "Recitation"; holy book of Islam; revelations received by Muhammad from Allah; compiled in the early 650s by devout Muslims; served as the definitive authority for Islamic religious doctrine and social organization.

sakk (p. 317) - Letters of credit in the banking system of the Islamic world; enabled merchants to draw letters of credit in one city and cash them in another; the root of the modem word for "check."

"seal of the prophets" (p. 308) - Title used by Muhammad to refer to himself, meaning that he was the final prophet through whom Allah revealed his divine message to humankind.

sharia (p. 309) - Islamic holy law; reflected social and ethical values derived from Islamic religious principles.

Shia (p. 3 10) - "Party"; political and theological sect within Islam; originally the sect was formed to support Ali and his descendants as caliphs; served as a refuge and a source of support for opponents of the dominant Sunni sect.

Sufis (p. 321) - Mystics of Islamic faith; sought an emotional and mystical union with Allah rather than an intellectual understanding of Islam; especially effective as missionaries because of their kindness, holiness, tolerance, and charismatic appeal.

Suljuq Turks (p. 313) - Nomadic people from central Asia; invaded the Byzantine empire and ruled the Islamic empire in the name of Abbasid caliphs from the mid- 11th century.

Sunnis (p. 3 10) - "Traditionalists"; political and theological sect within Islam; supported the legitimacy of the Umayyad caliphs.

ulama (p. 312) - "People with religious knowledge"; learned officials and moral authorities of Islamic communities; pious scholars who sought to develop public policy in accordance with the Quran and sharia.

Umayyad (pp. 3 10-11) - Most prominent Meccan merchant clan; dominated politics and economy of Mecca; established dynasty and built capital city at Damascus; dynasty lasted from 661 to 750 C.E.

umma (p. 308) - "Community of the faithful"; communities originally organized by Muhammad and his followers in Medina, which soon became the model of Islamic social organization.

Chapter 14

Significant Individuals

An Lushan (p. 332) - Military commander of Tang dynasty; launched rebellion in 755 and seized the Tang capital at Chang-an. Revolt was suppressed two years later, but the dynasty was severely weakened.

Huang Chao (pp. 332-33) - Leader of a large-scale uprising during the Tang, lasted from 875 to 884. Rebels caused tumult in much of eastern China.

Song Taizu (p. 333) - Title for the first Song emperor (reigned 960-976 C.E.); paciflea warlords after the collapse of the Tang dynasty and founded the Song dynasty. Policies emphasized civil administration over military affairs.

Sui Yangdi (pp. 329-30) - Second and last emperor of the Sui dynasty, reigned from 604 to 618; responsible for construction of the Grand Canal; assassinated in 618.

Tang Taizong (p. 330) - Second emperor of Tang dynasty, reigned from 627 to 649; murdered his two brothers and pushed his father aside to gain throne; built a splendid capital at Chang-an; sought to reinforce interests of small peasants by light taxes and the equal-field system; strengthened bureaucracy by using civil service examination system; competent ruler who brought unusual stability and prosperity to China.

Yang Jian (pp. 328-29) - Founder of the Sui dynasty; claimed the title of emperor for himself in 581 and reunified China in 589.

Xuanzang (pp. 327-28, 344) - Buddhist monk of the Tang dynasty; traveled to India and spent 12 years there studying Buddhism beginning in 630 C.E. His pilgrimage became a legend that helped to popularize Buddhism in China.

Zhu Xi (p. 345) - Most prominent philosopher of Neo-Confucianism during the Song dynasty; wrote extensively on metaphysical themes such as the nature of reality; stressed importance of philosophical investigations to practical affairs.

Chapter Glossary

block-printing (p. 338) - Technique of printing which was popular during the early Song; involved carving a reverse image of an entire page onto a wooden block, inking of the block, and pressing a sheet of paper on top. By the mid- I 11th century, Chinese printers also invented reusable and movable type.

bushido (p. 350) - "The way of the warrior"; behavior code widely observed by samurai in feudal Japan; emphasized virtues of absolute loyalty, courage, physical strength, and a spirit of aggression.

Chan Buddhism (p. 344) - Popular Buddhist sect in China (also known by its Japanese name, Zen); had little interest in written texts but instead emphasized intuition and sudden flashes of insight in search of spiritual enlightenment.

Chang-an (pp. 330, 336) - Capital of Tang Dynasty built under Tang Taizong; the world's most populous city with as many as two million residents; a cosmopolitan, cultural mecca.

civil service examinations (pp. 331-32) - Examinations periodically given by governments for recruiting government officials; tests were based on classic works of Chinese literature and philosophy; originating from the Han dynasty, and became completely institutionalized during the Tang and Song dynasties.

Dunhuang (p. 342) - Oasis city in western China on the silk road; site of hundreds of Buddhist cave temples, and known for its leading role in spreading Mahayana Buddhism in China.

equal-field system (p. 331) - System of landholding during the early Tang dynasty. To ensure equitable land distribution, government allocated land to individuals and their families according to the land's fertility and the recipients' needs. A family could keep one-fifth of the land as hereditary property while the rest would be subject to periodic redistribution to adjust for changing circumstances of the recipients.

fast-ripening rice (p. 335) - Strain of rice originally cultivated by Vietnamese which enabled farmers to harvest twice a year; introduced to south China via military ventures during the Tang dynasty.

flying cash (p. 339) - Chinese letter of credit or early form of currency issued by banks to facilitate trade between different locations; popularly used during the early Tang dynasty to alleviate the shortage of copper coins.

foot binding (p. 337) - Chinese custom since the Song dynasty; involved fight wrapping of young girls' feet with strips of cloth that prevented natural growth of the bones and resulted in tiny, malformed, curved feet. Practiced to enhance women's attractiveness, display their high social standing, and gain better control of their behavior.

Grand Canal (p. 329) - Artificial waterway constructed under emperor Sui Yangdi which extended about 1,240 miles from south to north; served as the principal conduit for internal trade and transportation.

gunpowder (p. 338) - Explosive powder discovered by Daoist alchemists while seeking elixirs during the 5th century; popularly used in China to make fire crackers and weapons; quickly diff-used throughout Eurasia.

Hangzhou (p. 336) - Capital city of the later Song dynasty; had more than one million residents during the late 1P century; known for its scenic beauty and economic prosperity.

Heian Japan (pp. 348-49) - Period of Japanese history between 794 and 1185 C.E.; characterized by new developments in politics and culture; imperial house became a symbol of national authority while effective power was in the hands of the Fujiwara family; lifestyle of aristocrats, as depicted in The Tale of Genji, was uniquely Japanese.

Chan Buddhism (p. 344) - Popular Buddhist sect in China (also known by its Japanese name, Zen); had little interest in written texts but instead emphasized intuition and sudden flashes of insight in search of spiritual enlightenment.

Chang-an (pp. 330, 336) - Capital of Tang Dynasty built under Tang Taizong; the world's most populous city with as many as two million residents; a cosmopolitan, cultural mecca.

civil service examinations (pp. 331-32) - Examinations periodically given by governments for recruiting government officials; tests were based on classic works of Chinese literature and philosophy; originating from the Han dynasty, and became completely institutionalized during the Tang and Song dynasties.

Dunhuang (p. 342) - Oasis city in western China on the silk road; site of hundreds of Buddhist cave temples, and known for its leading role in spreading Mahayana Buddhism in China.

equal-field system (p. 331) - System of landholding during the early Tang dynasty. To ensure equitable land distribution, government allocated land to individuals and their families according to the land's fertility and the recipients' needs. A family could keep one-fifth of the land as hereditary property while the rest would be subject to periodic redistribution to adjust for changing circumstances of the recipients.

fast-ripening rice (p. 335) - Strain of rice originally cultivated by Vietnamese which enabled farmers to harvest twice a year; introduced to south China via military ventures during the Tang dynasty.

flying cash (p. 339) - Chinese letter of credit or early form of currency issued by banks to facilitate trade between different locations; popularly used during the early Tang dynasty to alleviate the shortage of copper coins.

foot binding (p. 337) - Chinese custom since the Song dynasty; involved fight wrapping of young girls' feet with strips of cloth that prevented natural growth of the bones and resulted in tiny, malformed, curved feet. Practiced to enhance women's attractiveness, display their high social standing, and gain better control of their behavior.

Grand Canal (p. 329) - Artificial waterway constructed under emperor Sui Yangdi which extended about 1,240 miles from south to north; served as the principal conduit for internal trade and transportation.

gunpowder (p. 338) - Explosive powder discovered by Daoist alchemists while seeking elixirs during the 5th century; popularly used in China to make fire crackers and weapons; quickly diff-used throughout Eurasia.

Hangzhou (p. 336) - Capital city of the later Song dynasty; had more than one million residents during the late 11th century; known for its scenic beauty and economic prosperity.

Heian Japan (pp. 348-49) - Period of Japanese history between 794 and 1185 C.E.; characterized by new developments in politics and culture; imperial house became a symbol of national authority while effective power was in the hands of the Fujiwara family; lifestyle of aristocrats, as depicted in The Tale of Genji, was uniquely Japanese.

Jurchen (p. 335) - Nomadic people from Manchuria; conquered the Khitan empire, overran northern China and captured the Song capital in the early 12th century; ruled north China until 1279 while south China continued under the rule of the Song dynasty.

Kamakura and Muromachi (pp. 349-50) -Two periods of Japanese medieval history, lasting from 1185 to 15 73 C.E.); characterized by the development of feudalism.

Khitan (pp. 334-35) - Seminomadic people from Manchuria; ruled a vast empire stretching from northern Korea to Mongolia from the 10th century; forced the Song court to present large tribute payments of silk and silver in exchange for peace; conquered by the Jurchen in the early 12th century.

li and qi (p. 345) - Two elements in Zhu Xi's theory that accounted for all physical being. Li referred to principles that define the essence of all beings, and qi defined material forms or shapes of various beings.

Nam Viet (p. 347) - Chinese term for Vietnam, meaning "the southern Viet"; became a tributary state of Tang China; gained independence after the fall of the Tang dynasty during the early 10th century.

Nara Japan (p. 348) - Period of Japanese history lasting from 710 to 794 C.E. Inspired by the Tang example, Japanese authorities established a court modeled on that of the Tang, instituted a Chinese style bureaucracy, implemented an equal-field system, provided official support for Confucianism and Buddhism, and built a capital city at Nara that was a replica of the Tang capital at Chang'an.

Neo-Confucianism (p. 345) - Represents new development of Confucianism during the Song dynasty as Chinese intellectuals were increasingly influenced by Buddhist thought. Retained Confucian tradition but became more speculative and philosophical than the early Confucianism; became the basis of the Confucian civil service examination system.

paper money (p. 340) - Printed notes issued by Chinese private banks as currency to facilitate commercial transactions beginning in the late 9b century; by the I 16' century, issuing paper money became an exclusive right of the Chinese government.

samurai (p. 350) - Professional warriors of feudal Japan; served provincial lords with their fighting skills; emphasized virtues of loyalty, strength, courage, and a spirit of aggression.

seppuku or hara-kiri (p. 350) - Ritual suicide of disembowelment practiced by Japanese samurai to avoid dishonor and humiliation.

shogun (pp. 349-50) - The most powerful regional lord in Japan who assumed leadership under the symbolic authority of the emperor. The title shogun was first used in the Kamakura period (1185-1333 C.E.).

Sila (pp. 332, 346-47) - Korean dynasty, ruling from.669 to 935 C.E.; rallied forces to resist invasion of the Chinese Tang armies during the 7th century; but entered into a tributary relationship with China thereafter and was deeply influenced by the Chinese political and cultural tradition.

south-pointing needle (p. 338) - Chinese term for magnetic compass; invented and used for naval purposes during the Song dynasty.

tributary relationship (p. 332) - Unequal relationships between China and surrounding countries; peoples of the neighboring lands would recognize Chinese emperors as their overlords. Envoys from subordinate states would regularly present gifts to Chinese court and perform the kowtow ritual as tokens & their subordination. In return, tributary states received confirmation of their authority as well as lavish gifts from the Chinese court. The system facilitated trade and cultural exchange between China and other countries.

Uighurs (p. 332) - Nomadic Turkish people; invited by the Tang authorities to suppress An Lushan's revolt in 757; became de facto rulers of the Tang imperial court after the revolt was pacified.

Chapter 15

Significant Individuals

Harihara and Bukka (p. 360) - Co-founders of Vijayanagar kingdom; official delegates of the sultan in Delhi; renounced Islam, returned to their Hindu faith, and claimed independence in south India in 1336 C.E.

Harsha (p. 357) - King of the Harsha kingdom; reigned from 606 to 648 C.E.; maintained a powerful -my and temporarily unified most of north India; enjoyed a reputation for piety, liberal attitude, and scholarship.

Mahmud of Ghazni (p. 358) - Leader of Muslim Turks in Afghanistan; frequently raided north India at the beginning of the 11th century C.E.; destroyed many Buddhist sites and established mosques or Islamic shrines at the sites of Hindu and Buddhist structures.

Kabir (p. 370) - Spiritual leader of the bhakti movement; active at the turn of the 15'fi and 16th centuries .E.; taught that Shiva, Vishnu, and Allah were all manifestations of a single, universal deity, whom all devout believers could -find within their own hearts.

Pamesvara (p. 374) Prince of Sumatra and founder of the Melaka state.

Ramanuja (p. 369) - Brahmin philosopher of south India; active during the 11th and early 12th centuries C.E.; taught intensive devotion to Vishnu for personal salvation, and challenged Shankara's intellectual system of thought.

Shankara (p. 369) - Brahmin philosopher of south India; active during the early 9th century C.E.; mistrusted emotional services and ceremonies; believed that only through disciplined logical reasoning an could understand ultimate reality.

Chapter Glossary

Angkor (p. 373) - Kingdom of southeast Asia; lasted from 889 to 1431 C.E.; known for its capital city Angkor Thom, designed as a microcosmic reflection of the Hindu world order.

bhakti (p. 370) - Religious movement that emerged in southern India during the 12th century C.E.; originally encouraged traditional piety and devotion to kindu values, but as the movement spread to the north, it began to incorporate certain Islamic values, especially monotheism and the notion of spiritual equality of all believers.

Chola (p. 359) - Large kingdom of southern India; ruled the Coromandel coast from 850 to 1267 C.E.; conquered Ceylon and parts of southeast Asia during the I 11th century C.E.

dhow (p. 364) Large commercial ships favored by Indian, Persian, and Arab sailors.

Funan (pp. 371-72) - First Indianized kingdom of southeast Asia; dominated the lower reaches of the Mekong River from the 1st through the 6th centuries C.E.

Majapahit (p. 373) - Small kingdom on Java, ruled between 1293 and 1520 C.E.

Melaka (p. 374) - Powerful kingdom of southeast Asia, based on Malay peninsula; founded during the late 14th century; changed from a Hindu state to an Islamic state during the mid-15th century.

Sind (pp. 357-58) - Region of the Indus River valley in northwestern India; conquered by the army of the Ummayad caliphate in 711 C.E. and later became part of the Abbasid empire.

Singosari (p. 373) Small kingdom on Java, ruled between 1222 and 1292 C.E.

Srivijaya (p. 373) - Kingdom of southeast Asia, based on the island of Sumatra; lasted from the 7th century to the 11th century C.E.; received strong Indian influence.

sultanate of Delhi (p. 358) - State founded by Muslim Turks who conquered northern India at the beginning of the 13th century C.E. and established their rule, at least in name, for more than three centuries.

Vijayanagar (p. 360) - Large kingdom of south India, based in northern Deccan; lasted from 1336 to 1565 C.E.

Chapter 16

Significant Individuals

Alfred (p. 389) - Early king of Angles and Saxons in England; expanded from his base in southern England to territories further north held by Danish invaders; built a navy to challenge the Vikings at sea and constructed fortresses on land to secure the conquered areas; reigned from 871 to 899.

Charlemagne (pp. 383-85, 395-96) - Grandson of Charles Martel, reigned from 768 to 814; established a substantial empire which covered France, Germany, northeastern Spain, Bavaria, and northern Italy, and introduced some centralized institutions; received coronation in 800 by the pope. Charles Martel (p. 383) - Founder of Carolingian dynasty; did not claim the title of Frankish king himself, but ruled as deputy to the last of Clovis's descendants.

Clovis (pp. 381-83) - Early Frankish king; ruled the Franks from 481 to 511; converted to Roman Christianity; built a powerful kingdom in Gaul that laid down the foundation for Charlemagne's empire.

Louis the Pious (p. 386) - Charlemagne's only surviving son, reigned from 814 to 840; weak monarch who lost control of the counts and other local authorities of the Carolingian dynasty. After his death, his three sons divided Carolingian dynasty into three kingdoms.

Otto I (pp. 389-90) - Early king of Saxony in Germany (reigned 936-973); defeated a Magyar army and ended the Magyar threat in 955; imposed authority throughout Germany; twice led armies into Italy to support the papacy against Lombard magnates; received coronation from the pope in 962.

Pope Gregory I (pp. 396-97) - Also known as Gregory the Great, was pope from 590 and 604; organized defense of Rome and reasserted papal primacy over other bishops; theologically emphasized the sacrament of penance; helped to extend Roman Christianity to western Europe through missionary activity.

Pope Leo III (pp. 385) - 9th century pope who proclaimed Charlemagne emperor and placed an imperial crown on his head on Christmas Day of 800.

St. Benedict of Nursia (pp. 397-98) - Strengthened the early monastic movement by providing it with a set of rules in medieval western Europe during the e century.

St. Scholastica (p. 398) - St. Benedict's sister; a nun who adapted St. Benedict's rules and provided guidance for the religious life of women living in convents.

Chapter Glossary

benefice (pp. 390-91) - A grant provided by a lord to his vassals with which the vassal supported himself and his family. Benefices usually were grants of land, often called fiefs, but they sometimes took other forms, such as the right to income from mills, village rents, and money; see also fief below.

Carolingians (p. 383) - Frankish royal family who replaced Clovis's line in 751 and ruled France until the 10th century.

counts (p. 385) - Title for aristocratic deputies in Charlemagne's empire; held political, military, and legal authority in local jurisdictions.

fief (pp. 390-91) - Land granted by a lord to his vassal in exchange for his loyalty, obedience, counsel, and military service during the medieval period of European history; see also benefice above.

manor (pp. 392-93) - Self-sufficient, large estate of a feudal lord consisting of fields, meadows, forests, agricultural tools, domestic animals, and sometime lakes or rivers, as well as serfs bound to the land; the principal form of agricultural organization in medieval western Europe.

Magyars (p. 387) - Descendants of nomadic peoples from central Asia who had settled in Hungary; raided settlements in Germany, Italy, and southern France from the late 9th to the mid-10th century.

middle ages (p. 379) - Medieval period of European history from about 500 to 1500; so called because it falls between the classical era and modern times.

missi dominici (p. 385) - "Envoys of the lord ruler"; Charlemagne's imperial officials who traveled every year to all local jurisdictions and reviewed the accounts of local authorities.

sagas - Viking epics.

serfs (p. 392) - Social class of feudal Europe; formed through merging of slaves and free peasants into an intermediate, semi-free category of individuals; owed obligations to the lord whose lands they cultivated.

Vikings (pp. 388-90) - Outstanding Scandinavian seafarers and most feared invaders who mounted raids in Russia, Germany, England, Ireland, France, Spain, and the Balearic Islands during the period from the 8th through the 11th centuries; some of them colonized Iceland and Greenland, some settled in northern France, and a small group even established a colony in Newfoundland in modern Canada.