GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Pero Tafur: Travel of a Fifteenth Century Knight

By Randy Sandoval

June, 2002

General Introduction

Pero Tafur was an intriguing individual who stood out from other travelers in the fifteenth century. He was a knight, or hidalgo, who possessed a keen interest in religion, political affairs and merchant trade. During the years from 1435 to 1439, Tafur traveled extensively in the Near East and Europe. He carefully recorded his observations on the religions, the politics and the commerce found in the areas through which he traveled..

His original accounts were written in his native Castilian Spanish; however, over time, translations into other languages including English and German have been made. It is important to mention that Tafur’s accounts began as a narrative journal submitted to Senor Don Fernando de Guzman, Chief Commander of the Order of Calatrava. Guzman was Tafur’s superior and both belonged to the same order, the Order of Calatrava, originally founded as a military confraternity by Cisterian monks in the twelfth century.

Knighthood formed the primary backdrop for Tafur’s journey. Tafur gives his reasons for travel at the outset of his journal:

The state of knighthood, O most virtuous Senor, had ever a beginning, but is, indeed, more lasting than any other virtuous office, for the exercise thereof is more appropriate to the noble, and virtue itself is the chief and surest foundation of nobility. A man may be called noble so long as he follows the customs of his predecessors, who not departing from deeds of virtue, gave promise of the continuance of prowess, thus deserving to become the leaders and rulers of men...

From the practice of traveling into foreign lands a man may reasonably hope to attain proficiency in that which prowess demands. Thus hidalgos may grow stout-hearted where, being unknown, they are beset by hardship and peril, striving to show themselves worthy of their ancestors, and by their own deeds to make their virtues known to strangers.[1]

Tafur’s journal gives the impression of a man who was eager to make a name for himself, to learn about commercial affairs and trading networks, and to please his superiors. He had an adventurous spirit, he was intellectually curious, and he carried with him a deep religious faith. Tafur exhibits many of the same interests as Arnold Von Harff, Pietro Castola and Felix Fabri who also traveled during the fifteenth century. The pilgrimages of these four men led them to different lands, but all were determined to retrace the steps of their Lord, Jesus Christ. All four men were either knights themselves or closely linked to members of the knighthood.

Biography

Pero Tafur was born in Cordova, Spain. The year 1410 is the best approximation for the year of his birth. Tafur was man of noble Castilian birth and his family considered them to be related to the imperial family in Constantinople.[2] In 1435, Tafur embarked on his travels to the Holy Land to enhance his status as knight. His journey began in the same year he participated in an unsuccessful attack on the Moorish stronghold of Gibraltar in 1435.[3] He frequently mentions in his journal that he must return to Spain to help the King fight against the Moors and fulfill his duty as a knight. Tafur’s journey to the Holy Land would give him a better understanding of his role as a knight, give him an opportunity to strengthen his religious beliefs and give him information about the merchant trade for Spain.

Tafur’s travels took him throughout Europe, Africa and the Eastern Mediterranean. He traveled through much of Italy, Germany, Denmark, Austria, and Hungary. Also, He journeyed to Egypt, the Holy Land, the Black Sea region, and Constantinople.

His journey ended in 1439 with a return to his native Spain. Very little is known of his life after this point. Records show Tafur married Dona Juana de Horozco in 1452.[4] The next four years from 1453 through 1457, Tafur spent revising the accounts of his narrative.[5] Tafur took the title of alderman, a public office, in 1479. His service as a knight, or hidalgo, ended in approximately 1484 with his death.[6]

ITINERARY

At the age of twenty-five, Tafur began his journey, leaving Spain for Genoa. He remained in Genoa until Christmas Day of 1435.[7] From Genoa, Tafur traveled to Pisa, Florence, and Bologna. In Bologna, he met Pope Eugenius. Pope Eugenius IV bestowed his blessing on Tafur and gave him permission to travel to the Holy Land. After receiving the blessing to continue his pilgrimage, Tafur rested a few days more and then traveled to Rome. After arriving in Rome and seeing the sights and culture, Tafur journeyed to Perugia, Assisi, Ravenna and Venice. There he set sail for the East.

The year was 1436 and the date Ascension Day.[8] Tafur does not record when he arrived in Jaffa, the port of Jerusalem. Most people on religious pilgrimages during the fifteenth century disembarked at Jaffa as it was the port of entry to the Holy Land.[9] Next, Tafur traveled to Jerusalem, visiting the religious landmarks along the way. He visited Bethlehem, Jericho, the Jordan River, and eventually, the Dead Sea. The Holy Land was filled with many religious landmarks, most of which Tafur visited during his travels. In November of 1437, Tafur arrived in Constantinople.[10] From Constantinople, Tafur made his way to Kaffa, the chief base of Genoese trade in the Black Sea region.[11] Two years to the day, Ascension Day, Tafur arrived in Venice, the starting point for his Holy Land trip.[12] Tafur then traveled through Italy, crossed through Saint Gothard Pass, and arrived in Basle. Next, he traveled on the Rhine until arriving at Cologne. From Cologne, he went to the Low Countries, visiting Malines and Brussels.[13] Tafur next travels to Antwerp, Prague, Vienna, Venice, Florence, and finally arrived home in Spain in either March or April of 1439.[14]

History Of The Text

The travels of Pero Tafur were first printed in 1874 in Madrid, Spain and were edited by D. Marcos Jimenez de la Espada. The full title of the text is Andancas e’Viajes de Pero Tafur por diversas partes del mundo avidos (1435-1439). The work appeared in the volume eight of the Coleccion de Libros Espanoles raros o’curiosos. The editor had used the only known manuscript in the Library of Colegio mayor de S. Barolome’de Cuenca in Salamanca. This manuscript is now housed at the Biblioteca Patrimonial.[15] The Castilians wrote with different spelling and irregular punctuation.[16] The poor handling of earlier manuscripts resulted in a loss of some sections of Tafur’s original account. The original script may have been written in columns.

Dr. Konrad Habler published a German translation in 1887.[17] Malcolm Letts, in 1926, was the first and only person to translate Tafur’s account into English. Miss A. de Alberti assisted him. Her knowledge of early Spanish contributed to the accuracy of the translation. Letts divided the narrative into chapters to make it easier to follow.

Introduction To The Diary And The Historical Context

In the early fifteenth century, Spain was engaged in battles against the Moors for control of the southern region. In 1492, the Moors were finally driven out of southern Spain and Spain was then able to have a presence in the world of trade and commerce. Knights of the time were obligated to the king and to the church. The knights followed a code of ethics that frequently led them to embark on religious pilgrimages.[18]

During the time of Tafur’s travels, slave trade in Spain was still occurring, but it would extend only until 1440.[19] The slaves for these markets were acquired from Africa and near the Black Sea. Tafur himself purchased three Christian slaves, two of them female, when he was in Kaffa in the Black Sea area. They traveled with him during his travels and returned to Spain with him.[20]

Like other pilgrims of the time, Tafur had to receive the Pope’s blessing before he could travel to the Holy Land. He sought out Pope Eugenius IV, who was in fear of his life after being exiled from Rome. His enemies in Rome had exiled the Pope after disputes with the Council of Basle over reform of the Church.[21] Then at Bologna, the Pope granted Tafur a license and permission to travel to the Holy Land. Tafur was also pardoned of his sins.[22]

Tafur, like other pilgrims of the time, traveled to Jaffa and disembarked there to make his way to visit Jerusalem and other religious sites of the region. One site was particularly important to pilgrims and to Tafur. This was the church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. He continued on to Mount Sinai, another popular pilgrimage destination. Here, he got to meet a famous Venetian traveler, Nicolo de’Conti, who tells Tafur of his travels through India and discourages Tafur from making his way to India. It is unclear why Tafur wanted to travel to India, but it may have been in hopes of finding information on the spice trace that was so significant to Europe at that time.

Tafur journeyed to Rome and Constantinople, two sites on the itineraries of most travelers of the middle ages. During the fifteenth century, these two cities had fallen victim to sackings, uncleanliness, and decay.[23] Still Tafur could observe that these two cities had been great Roman centers at one time.

Tafur also mentions Kaffa, the chief base of Genoese trade on the Crimean Coast, and the greatest Catholic colony in the land of infidels.[24] Kaffa was the primary region for silk trade from China as well as a center of slave trade.

In the time of Tafur’s travels, Venice was very significant. Venice was one of the great trading centers of the world. Venice was where religious pilgrims embarked on their journey to the Holy Land. Venice was very much alive with every type of commerce. Tafur visited Venice’s famous arsenal and saw ten galleys completely fitted out while being towed past the windows of the storehouses in assembly-line fashion.[25] The city was very clean in comparison to Constantinople and Rome.

Since one of Tafur’s main objectives as knight was to make his “virtues known to strangers,” he was very conscientious about recording the European nobility who received him. Tafur mentioned that the Archbishop, Dietrich von Mors in Cologne, received him. Duke Philip the Good, who was in the Low Countries, also received him. Tafur also mentioned meeting the Court of Burgundy where the Bastard of Saint Pol, one of the foremost soldiers of his day, received him.[26] Tafur traveled to Prague, where he pays his respect to Albert II, King of the Romans. Tafur also pays his respect to Albert’s consort, Elizabeth, the daughter of the Emperor Sigismund, whose son would eventually hold the crown in Hungary.[27]

Exegesis

Tafur’s bloodline and knighthood can be traced back to his ancestor Don Estevan Yllan; he was from Constantinople and settled in Toledo.[28] Eventually the son of Don Estevan Yllan, Don Pero Ruiz Tafur, conquered and established the first Christian control over Cordova in 1235.[29] An historian can see why Tafur had an interest in visiting Constantinople, which is mentioned in his travel journal. To better understand Tafur, one must understand the meaning of knighthood. He must possess a noble heart and should be governed by his own virtues. The first duty of a knight is chivalry. Other duties of a knight are being prayerful, defending what is good, being a laborer, and following his own calling.[30] Tafur possessed all of these qualities that were carried down from his ancestors.

“Doing justice, continent and temperate, enduring and courageous; and withal he must have great in God, hope of his glory, that he may attain the guerdon of the good that he has done, and finally he must have charity and the love of his neighbor…I tell you that through good knights is the king and the kingdom honoured, protected, feared and defended.”[31]

Tafur also possessed the Cardinal Virtues of a knight. They are prudence, justice, temperance, and fortitude.[32] Cardinal Virtues were the foundation of Tafur’s completion of his journey. Tafur modeled himself after a traveler and Castilian knight from Madrid, Ruy Gonzales del Chavijo.[33] Most knights, like Tafur, heard about heroes and heroic deeds of the past in stories. These stories served as examples and provided models of behavior.[34] Throughout his travels, Tafur had to deal with many different types of cultures and managed to fit in very well. Tafur also possessed bravery and courage, a requirement for a journey and title of knight.

Other travelers of the fifteenth century knights such as Arnold Von Harff, Pietro Casola, Felix Fabri, also possessed the Cardinal Virtues of Knighthood. They shared the similar interest in the Venetians, as Venice was starting point for the journey to the Holy Land. In all of the traveler’s narratives, they mention visiting the arsenal and the market places of Venice that sold silk, spices, Murano glass works and other merchandise. Fabri describes Venice in his travel journal that “Venice famous, great, wealthy and noble city and the mistress of the Mediterranean.[35]”

All of these travelers possess curiosity and a thirst for knowledge. Tafur and Casola both were able to visit with the Venetian political interior where other pilgrims could not venture.[36] These men were allowed to visit because of the knighthood status they possessed. Tafur was quite impressed with Venice and managed to learn a great deal about the merchant trade and the world around him.

Tafur’s bravery and courage as a knight were evident when he endangered his life to enter the Mosque of Oman. Knight Arnold Von Harff also entered the Mosque. Both men entered in disguise because it was a Muslim holy place. Christians were not allowed in the Mosque. Von Harff made his journey with a band of merchants and showed keen interest in commercial affairs[37]. Tafur showed a smilar interest in commerce and trade. He was, perhaps, in an even better position to understand the intricacies of trade because being from Spain, Tafur was accustomed to Jewish and Muslim influences. It is important to mention that many of the Jews that Tafur encountered on his journey had moved to the Holy Land from Spain.

Felix Fabri, a native of Zurich, embarked on two pilgrimages to the Holy Land to satisfy his yearning to see the sacred sites and gain a better understanding of the Holy Scriptures.[38] He mentions the people who controlled the Holy Land during the time of Tafur’s visit were Muslims, called the Mamelukes.[39] Tafur encountered these same people. Likewise, did Von Harff and Casola.

During the fifteenth country, Spain had a very confident and aggressive bourgeoisie of which Tafur was a member. The nobility in Spain, because of their political influences, enjoyed trade investments, profit, and economic expansion as a way of life.[40] With this mind-set, one can better understand why Tafur, being a knight, was prone to note the economic activities and the trading networks throughout his travels accounts. Tafur’s asset of being literate, at a time when most were not, made life much easier during his travels. Having the financial backing to support the trip was also a plus. Spain, during the fifteenth century, was prospering and expanding its interests abroad. The mind-set of the Spanish, during the fifteenth century is representative of the following:

“It was this situation that conditioned the Spanish mind to accept the burdens, as well as the profits, of empire; and since the burdens long preceded the profits, without this mental attitude there would have probable been no empire.”[41]

Another primary driving force of Tafur’s travels was the spices and silk coming from the Far East. These resources were monopolized by Arab traders before they reached Spain. Prices were inflated and Spain needed to acquire the goods firsthand. To discover how to break this trade monopoly Spain needed accurate information on how the trade was conducted. Information gathering required someone who had financing, prowess, and literacy to properly perform the task. Tafur was a person possessing all these qualities..

As mentioned in Tafur’s narrative, he became proficient at using letters of exchange and transferring his currency in Venice.[42] He become accustomed to using the Venetian ducats. This was the gold standard used in the fifteenth century in Venice and throughout the Mediterranean. The people of the Middle Ages acquired great banking skills. Different types of currency emerged, letters of exchange were developed, and trade became more important. With Tafur’s knighthood, literacy and savvy, he could perform with tact and ease at trading.

Tafur as a knight associated with merchant traders, artisans, gentlemen, lords, princes, and prelates of every rank. He was the first person to mention art sales taking place in monastic buildings in Antwerp in 1438. He also noted gold and silver work sold in Antwerp. By the fifteenth and sixteenth century major art sales became a common feature at Our Lady Pand convent.[43]

Throughout Tafur’s journey, his heritage of knighthood influenced and gave him the drive to learn about commercial affairs and merchant tradeThis heritage also led him to seek out prominent people wherever he traveled, and to pay special attention to religious sites along the way. This journey broadened Tafur’s understanding of the world and impacted the rest of his life.

Conclusion

Tafur was an intriguing individual in that he was a knight and who possessed an interest in merchant trade. Tafur’s writings lend the impression of a man who was eager to learn about commercial affairs and trading networks, who wanted to please his superiors, and who had an adventurous spirit through his knighthood. The oath that Tafur made as a knight shaped and encouraged him to report on the trade, commerce and military of distant lands. It was this knighthood spirit that eventually led to Spain becoming a world power. Tafur’s pilgrimage led him to great trading centers, centers of religious significance. Tafur was so proud of his journey that he presented his travel journal to his superior knight Senor Don Fernando de Guzman, Chief Commander of the Order of Calatrava and several hundred years later, it is presented to modern readers to recognize a real hero of the fifteenth century. Tafur’s legacy can inspire people of today for the thirst knowledge and honor.

Notes