Ever since Abraham left Ur 4,000 years ago, people have been searching for God by making pilgrimages. Moses, Paul and Muhammad were not only descendents of Abraham but travelers as well. Most importantly, pilgrimages have always played an important role in Jewish, Christian, and Muslim traditions. In addition, Hindus, for thousands of years, have flocked to the sacred sites to be face to face with their deities. In the 6th Century BC Buddha left home to find enlightenment. It is no wonder; then, that narrative accounts of travel and pilgrimages abound. Why do people make pilgrimages? According to publisher Ronald Musto of Italica Press, a specialist in Medieval and Renaissance works, "People make pilgrimages in order to feed their imaginations to get into the mentality of other places and other times." In a like manner, that is why people write about and read about a pilgrim's journey. (1)

The goal of a pilgrimage can be likened to reaching a mountain's summit. Furthermore, "The path of any one pilgrim treads only on a single slope and cannot exclude the views from the other faces, nor can the climber be fully aware of the other tracks mapped out in the same terrain by pilgrims of the past and future." (2)

A pilgrimage is more than just a journey. For example, a pilgrimage can involve rituals, holy objects, and sacred architecture. These elements intermingle and reinforce each other according to the very different pilgrims and their religious traditions. A pilgrimage also involves bringing back souvenirs. (3)

Pilgrimage Past and Present in World Religions evokes the meaning of a pilgrimage, stating that: The physical journey through time and space that is an essential part of pilgrimage can also have metaphorical resonance's on many levels. A pilgrimage may be a rite of passage involving transformations of one's inner state and outer status; it may be a quest for a transcendent goal; it may entail the long-desired healing of a physical or spiritual ailment. On their return, pilgrims frequently bring back a token of the place, both as proof that the journey has been completed and as a physical manifestation of the charisma of a sacred center. In this way, the sacred landscape becomes diffused, permeating even the everyday lives who have never been to, say, Mecca or Jerusalem. (4)

Relics, talismans and amulets are an important part of a pilgrimage because these objects help paint a picture of the holy journey in the imagination. For someone who has made a pilgrimage these are an act of memory. For someone who has not yet made a pilgrimage but hopes to someday, these objects offer an imaginary bond with the sacrosanct ambition, which will be faced in due time. (5)

Texts are especially effective in painting a picture of pilgrimage. Pilgrims from all of the major religions have written several accounts. Their chronicles serve as a testimony to encourage future generations. (6)

These accounts also serve as practical guides in regards to the physical journey as well as to its interpretation. "The literature on pilgrimage is enormous and incorporates a wide range of approaches: academic, confessional, personal and canonical." (7)

One of the underlying aims of this paper is to trace the various reasons people took pilgrimages to Jerusalem in the 19th century. The main focus of this paper is to look at one of these pilgrims, John Lloyd Stephens, and his diary in more depth, that is, the historical context of the time period, the history of the text, the biography of diarist, and finally an exegesis or a further explanation of a word in the diary.

This is not by any means a comprehensive account, but merely a brief overview of several noted American pilgrims of the nineteenth century - John Lloyd Stephens, Phillip Schaff, William C. Prime, Frank DeHass, Thomas Appleton, Henry Bartlett, and Captain Warren. John Lloyd Stephens wrote one of the most readable and popular travel accounts to Jerusalem.

In John Lloyd Stephens's early life, not much pointed to the role he would later play in regards to international travel exploration. Stephens was the son of a wealthy New York City merchant. In 1822 he graduated from Columbia College receiving a degree in law. After becoming a lawyer, he became an active member in the Manhattan's Tammancy Hall Democratic organization. (8)

Because of health reasons, in 1834 he left New York to take a long European trip. Just one year later, that trip took him to the Middle East. He traveled to Egypt, up the Nile, and through the Sinai desert. He also explored most of the areas in Palestine, and he went to a diverse number of isolated locations. To site an instance, he explored Petra, the rock-covered city that had never been seen before by an American. (9)

Phillip Schaff left New York in December 1876 for his Bible land journey, and his book Through Bible Lands was compiled from a sequence of letters he wrote from the Nile River and from tents in the wilderness and in Palestine. Schaff decided to write the original letters because he believed those that have the opportunity to travel abroad should extend the privilege to others. (10)

Schaff's book discusses future prospects of the East, and offers a straightforward account of what Schaff saw, heard and felt at the very instant it happened. Schaff, like John Lloyd Stephens, went without any intention of writing a book. He undertook the pilgrimage for two reasons - to receive relief from a family affliction and to gain new insight for Biblical studies. Pertaining to the introduction in his book: Bible lands, like the Bible itself, are of such universal and such perennial interest that they will continually demand new books and new comments."

Schaff hopes that his book shall assist the reader in understanding the Holy Bible better and finally give the reader more profound interest in the land where Christianity was born. (11)

Accordingly, the various Jewish reports in Roads to Zion share a common bond in that all the pilgrims accounts are fairly practical. Above all, they made their pilgrimages to Jerusalem because they all share a deep affinity for the land, its customs, its ruins, its air, and its stones. (12)

All the pilgrims of the nineteenth century tell of sickness, strange environments, and difficulties in travel, for example, by sea, by land on mules, camels, and horses, customs officers, and lastly anxiety over their goods and assets during the perilous journey. (13)

William C. Prime in Tent Life in the Holy City offers a truly eloquent explanation of why he made his pilgrimage: To see the sun go down beyond the Sepulchre and rise over the Mountain of the Ascension, to have my forehead to the cold dens of Gethsemane, and have my dim eyes in the waters of Siloam, to sleep in the company of the infinite host above the oaks of Mamre, and to lie in the starlight of Bethlehem and catch, however faintly, some notes of the voices of the angels, to wash off the dust of life in the Jordan, to cool my hot lips at the well of Samaria, to hear the murmur of Gennesareth, giving me blessed sleep- was not all this worth dreaming of- worth living for- was it not worth dying for? (14)

Prime simply visited the sacred soil of Jerusalem for sheer personal pleasure. In fact, he only went where he pleased, writing as he traveled. He savored every hour. He did everything on a whim, that is, praying, laughing, kneeling, weeping, and singing. (15) It was also apparent that John Lloyd Stephens did everything on a whim, as well.

Frank DeHass's pilgrimage to Jerusalem in the latter part of the 19th century involved an appointment by the United States government. His main reason for going and making his home for several years in Palestine, was to experience the lands of the Bible. DeHass wanted to see first-hand how the customs, manners, and traditions of the people and the country's terrain corresponded with the Bible. DeHass brings a new aspect into the idea of pilgrimage, that is of exploration. In Buried Cities Recovered, he offers a concise unveiling of explorations so that the religious reader and the traveler will be given the most updated research. (16)

Jerusalem seems to exude inspiration. For this reason throughout the ages countless people, such as in the 19th century,- divines, historians, antiquarians, writers and ordinary people have written colorful accounts of their travels and detailed explanations of their investigations. The desire to know more had never been greater than during the 19th century, because the more one reads and discovers about Palestine, the more one wants to know. (17) The popularity of Stephens' Incidents of Travel... bears witness to this trend.

Thomas Appleton embarked on a six-week Syrian journey, including Palestine, during the spring of 1875. Appleton's Syrian Sunshine emerged as a result of a serious accident in which he spent many hours in imprisonment. The book extended Appleton's solace, and in turn he had hopes that the reader would find comfort in his book. Appleton's pilgrimage is also an outlet for his distaste of Turkish rule in Palestine. He was utterly dismayed that the Turks were allowed to desecrate the Holy Land. (18)

Appleton seems to make his pilgrimage in order to soak up the sun, and to wander around the land of marvel, imprinting memories. Appleton makes a consorted effort to detach himself from a traditional pilgrimage by distancing himself from the over-trite visits to the holy places and sacred shrines. In short, Appleton's pilgrimage represents a mosaic of memories to lend to good conversation. (19)

The slow but continual evolution of the pilgrimage for the sake of discovery surfaced in the 19th century. People began to be motivated to make a pilgrimage in order to search, examine, and investigate; and eventually seek to confirm one's beliefs. With this particular class of pilgrim the relationship between the pilgrimage of discovery and the traditional idea of pilgrimage are interdependent. That is to say, the line of demarcation between the two is not easy to draw, however the two are interwoven, compelling and for the purpose of illustration and illumination. (20)

William Henry Bartlett, an English painter, was prompted by his love for the Bible to make his pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1834. For Bartlett, a pilgrimage entailed travelling the roads the prophets traveled, and consequently elicited deep emotions at the thought of visiting the Holy Land for only a short time.

Bartlett had another reason for taking a pilgrimage. It had to do with his profession. Bartlett was at home illustrating the alleys, byways, and ancient buildings in Jerusalem. (21)

Bartlett, like Stephens, made his first journey to the Holy Land when it was under the rule of Mohammed Ali of Egypt. Bartlett, however, was able to return in 1854 when it was once again under Turkish control. During this trip, Bartlett revisited old sites and discovered new ones. In due course he wrote a book called Jerusalem Revisited. Bartlett's written account of his pilgrimage to Jerusalem in the mid nineteenth century has left a deep impression on those seeking a deeper knowledge of the Holy City. (22)

The main reason Captain Warren wrote the book Recovery of Jerusalem is to show what is known and unknown of sacred localities in the Holy City Jerusalem. Warren was given funds for his survey and excavations of Jerusalem by Miss Burdett Coutts. Warren was under extreme pressure to finish writing Recovery of Jerusalem because of fading health. Warren made his pilgrimage as an explorer encountering many perils. He, however, wanted to add more puzzle pieces to the puzzle so that future generations would be able to se the entire picture when taking a pilgrimage, as did the other pilgrims who wrote books during the mid nineteenth century, especially John Lloyd Stephens. (23)

John Lloyd Stephens was born in Shrensburg, New Jersey, on November 28, 1805. His family moved to New York when he was thirteen months old. Although, New York at that time was only about fourteen miles around with a population of 60,000, it still was quite cosmopolitan. New York basked in its reputation as "Little London" and America looked to Europe for standards in manners and tastes. (24)

John Lloyd Stephens grew at the same time America was growing. Manufacturing in New York increased rapidly in response to the Embargo Act of 1807 and the continental blockades. At the same time Stephens was taking his first steps, Lewis and Clark were exploring the great lands the United States received from the Louisiana Purchase. As Stephens was beginning to talk, the Clemont, Fulton's steamboat, anchored right in front of his Greenwich Street house. When he was a young, bright-eyed boy, Pike discovered the Rocky Mountains and the Burr conspiracy was in full force. (25)

John Lloyd Stephens was shaped; and evolved from this young, growing America which gave him zeal, inquisitiveness, and an endless curiosity about people and places, apparent at a young age.

In 1812 learning was literally beat into John Lloyd Stephens, and in 1815 at the age of ten, John Lloyd Stephens started at the New York Classical School. This provided Stephens a way into Columbia College where he was submersed in the classics, and only briefly skimmed arithmetic, history, mechanics, and chemistry. Furthermore, he was required to learn Latin and Greek, since there was no intermediate school, John Lloyd Stephens entered Columbia College in March 1818 at the age of thirteen.

At Columbia, John Lloyd Stephens' greatest influence was the fairly young professor Charles Anthon. Charles Anthon went beyond the sparse required curriculum. He introduced Goethe, Schiller, Herden, Shelley, Byron, Keats, and Henry Hallam to his students. (26)

Charles Anthon was America's most well known classicist. Furthermore, he was one of Edgar Allan Poe's first admirers. John Lloyd Stephens was Anthon's favorite student. When Stephens wrote his first book and Edgar Allan Poe was given his first New York assignment, Anthon assisted Poe in securing a copy. John Lloyd Stephens, under the direction of Charles Anthon, evolved into a young man with a sense of humanism, and intellectual curiosity. (27)

Stephens graduated after four years from Columbia, on August 14, 1822, at the age of seventeen. Soon afterward it was time for John Lloyd Stephens to choose a career. He opted for law. After some consideration he decided to attend America's first law school, Tapping Reeve's Law School in Litchfield, Connecticut. Litchfield was nestled high on a plateau above the Naugatuck valley, and in 1722 had been an outpost for the northwest frontier. (28)

When John Lloyd Stephens arrived in Litchfield he saw that it was a cosmopolitan city, even though its population was only six thousand. Litchfield was commercially modest with only four forges, one slitting mill, one nail factory, one paper mill, and a few comb hatters and grain factories. What made it cosmopolitan was the students who studied there.(29)

Tapping Reeve's Law School was founded in 1782. In the forty years since it's creation, the school had educated two vice-presidents, sixteen senators, ten governors, fifty members of congress, two Supreme Court justices and five members of the cabinet. In addition there were numerous lawyers, judges, and businessmen, writers and artists that graduated from Tapping.

Law School classes were held in a small building opposite the home of Tapping Reeve. The law covered at Tapping was thorough. In fact, every opinion ancient and modern was absorbed. Stephens had to attend morning lectures six days a week, and the rest of the day he spent giving advice to the authorities. (30)

At the end of the week he was tested over the weeks lectures. The high point of the week transpired on Monday night. This is when the students held a mock court and practiced arguing hypothetical cases. On Stephens' day off, Sunday, he wrote letters to his father. He wrote about the law, the school, and the school's advisors. At one point, he wrote that he was the youngest student at the school. (31)

In September of 1824 Stephens became a graduate of law. Prior to his graduation, Stephens was given an offer by one of the most famous lawyers of the time, Daniel Lord of New York. The offer would jump-start his career. Stephens became aware of the offer through a letter written by his father Benjamin Stephens. XIV On his eighteenth birthday, with the advice of his father, he accepted the offer. This decision was a pivotal move in John Lloyd Stephens' life because it piqued his interest in politics. Most importantly, the offer "as a concatenation of cause and effect, set him off on his travels." (32)

Stephens' aunt, Helena Ridgeway married a Quaker and migrated to the Illinois Territory. One day a terrible letter arrived at the home of the Stephens Family. It told of the death of Helena's child. It was agreed, that someone from the Stephens family should make the dangerous trip to console the Ridgeways. John Lloyd volunteered to go before he started his career as a lawyer. Besides, John Lloyd Stephens, his cousin Charles Hendrickson also volunteered to make the hazardous journey. Charles Hendrickson chronicled the journey. This was the genesis of John Lloyd Stephens' travels. (33)

John Lloyd made his way back to Albany, New York, and at the age of 21, in 1827, was admitted into the bar. Andrew Jackson was elected President of the United States in 1828. The American people were displeased by the increase in immigrants, slums and ghettos as a result of industrialization. Many people elected Jackson because they felt Jefferson betrayed his own basic principals of equal rights. Before long an economic problem arose over a dispute between the bank of the United States and Andrew Jackson. Chaos ensued. One New Yorker's reaction, "Public opinion means more than the drilled voices of certain political friends of General Jackson who are pledged, body and soul to support him at all events." (34)

John Lloyd was doing exactly this. In other words, John Lloyd was practicing law but his heart was not in it. His newfound love, however, came in the way of politics. Here in lies the twist of fate that changed John Lloyd's life forever.

John Lloyd's political speaking for Democratic Party engagements brought about a throat infection. Stephens' Coccaceae had not been responding to medicines so his doctor prescribed a 'mild' trip to Europe.

On the "mild" European trip, John Lloyd Stephens went to Rome and to Naples for health reasons to climb Mount Vesuvius and to Sicily to climb Mount Etna. From there he went to Greece, even though there was a revolution going on against the Turks. Next, he went to Smyrna or Izmir in April of 1835 by boat. Frustrated with the progress that the ship was making he rented a horse and followed the road to Smyrna. Three hours later, he crossed a bridge, rumored to be near the birthplace of Homer. (35)

John Lloyd Stephens sent three letters describing his trip to Fenno Hoffman, editor of American Magazine. Hoffman published all three letters on April 16, 1935 without Stephens' knowing. This is why John Lloyd Stephens says the author in him was born by mere accident. After his visit to Smyrna, he journeyed to Russia, then to Poland, and finally to Paris. Harper and Brothers published a book of these travels in 1838 called Incidents of Travel in Greece, Turkey, Russia, and Poland. Once in Paris he decided to travel to Egypt instead of going back home to America. It is not known why he decided to do this.

Wolfgang Von Hagen, who wrote the introduction for Incidents of Travel... , speculated that John Lloyd Stephens was swayed by a book just out in Paris, Voyage de L'Arabie Petree, written by Leon de Laborde, but he had not apparently read the book. John Lloyd was only on his trip up the Nile after two Englishmen suggested that he visit Petra. He was determined to do so. According to Von Hagen, What ever prompted the trip--incident or accident-- it was to be one more concatenations of cause and effect. He would go to the Nile, Egypt, and to Petra. This hegira was to change the course of his life. It was also to change the course of American archaeological history. (36)

After his travels, John Lloyd Stephens became the founder and president of the Panama Railway. This came about as a result of his travels to Central America, political affiliations, and his discovery of the Mayan civilization. However, during the time it was being built, between 1847 and 1850, he contracted several Malaria infections. Shortly thereafter, his liver was infected, and in 1852 he died of the disease. John Lloyd Stephens' father Benjamin outlived him by thirty years. He stored John Lloyd's letters, journals, and royalty payments from publishers Harper and Brothers, at the Panama Railroad Company. This memorabilia stayed there for practically one hundred years until it was sold to a California bookseller, Victor Wolfgang Von Hagen, kindly gave the memorabilia to the Bancroft Library of the University of California in 1962. (37)

John Lloyd Stephens returned to New York in 1836 to write Incidents of Travel in Egypt, Arabia Petrĉa, and the Holy Land. At this time, American literature was experiencing difficulty in both popularity and also as a moneymaking source. John Lloyd Stephens experienced considerable fear in this new venture as a writer. He also worried that his legal career and law practice might suffer because writing was thought to be a "gratification of idleness."38 Aware of the risks, John Lloyd Stephens signed a contract with Harper and Brothers in 1836 for a publication on his travels to Egypt and Arabia Petrĉa. (39)

The original publication consisted of 180,000 words, and contained illustrations by Alexander Anderson, which were pirated from Léon de Laborde. The text was written in less than a year and published in the fall of 1837. It was widely reviewed, always with praises. 40 General Lewis Cass, a former governor of Michigan and a future Secretary of War, wrote that John Lloyd Stephens possessed "admirable qualities for the traveler...at times rising into elation" and displaying "eternal affectation of knowledge and taste." 41

Lewis Cass was the minister of France and later became secretary of state in the 1830's. In 1837, Cass made his way to Jaffa aboard the U.S.S. Constitution for the purpose of an investigative mission for the government. Cass wrote of his travel accounts, which was not published as a narrative alone but as a long and favorable review of John Lloyd Stephens' Incidents of Travel in Arabia. This alone attests to the popularity and importance of Stephens' book.

Edgar Allen Poe's review of John Lloyd Stephens' Incidents of Travel in Egypt, Arabia Petrĉa, and the Holy Land, helped make the book famous, in part because at the time he was the only critic to have anything to say, intelligently that is, about the mechanics of writing. Poe's first review, a scholarly article, appeared in The New-York Review and concluded that the book was written with a basic freshness. Furthermore, Poe wrote that he hoped it would not be the last time John Lloyd Stephens was heard from because good sense and sound feeling were evident in his writing. (42)

Incidents of Travel in Egypt, Arabia Petrĉa, and the Holy Land began to sell well, as suggested by the reviews. In fact, the English press finally found a work it could dote upon, and the British liked it so well that the book was still being reprinted in 1866. Likewise, the Athenaeum was impressed by the book and echoed Poe's feelings. A prize poem, The Newdigate, written in 1845, received its inspiration from Incidents of Travel in Egypt, Arabia Petrĉa, and the Holy Land. (43)

After only two years, twenty-one thousand copies had been sold, and eventually Stephens made twenty-five thousand dollars -- a remarkably high figure. Such success had been unprecedented. At this time the population of America was scarcely 20,000,000. In terms of book reading, only a mere fraction of this number was literate. (44)

According to Harper and Brothers' sales records, Incidents of Travel in Egypt, Arabia Petrĉa, and the Holy Land was in print until 1882. Stephens published four books, his first, Incidents of Travel in Egypt, Arabia Petrĉa, and the Holy Land outsold them all. Why was it so successful? Landscape of Belief offers a two-fold explanation. First, John Lloyd Stephens' style and method appealed to the general public. Also, he did not overload the reader with details but, instead constructed a general context, which was straightforward. Second, John Lloyd Stephens incorporated a certain degree of Americana in his writing. (45)

John Lloyd Stephens left Malta, and after five days on an English schooner he touched down on the coast of Alexandria, Egypt. After a few days visiting the ancient city, he made his way up the Nile to Cairo. He experienced all aspects of this fascinating city: the slave market, the pyramids, the sphinx, the poverty, the diversity -- and he even met with the Pasha. (46)

Stephens took a voyage up the Nile on a boat with only a small crew and his servant Paul. At Dendera, John Lloyd Stephens saw the first Egyptian edifice on the Nile. He wrote graffiti on the walls of the Temple just like everyone else had done. Next, John Lloyd Stephens made his way to the Valley of the Kings, then on to Elephantine and then to the ruins on Islands of Philae. Here he left more graffiti along with that of the conqueror of Upper Egypt, General Dessaix, and Cornelius Bradford, his late friend. Stephens arrived at Luxor next. This is were he visited with the English couple that had just visited Mount Sinai and the Red Sea, and as a result suggested John Lloyd Stephens take the route to the Sinai and Arabia Petraea. (47)

Stephens took the name of 'Abdel Hasis' or the 'Slave of God' on March 14, 1836. He wore a lengthy red silk gown, a turban, white pants, big red shoes, yellow slippers, a blue sash, and two huge Turkish pistols. In Incidents of Travel in Egypt, Arabia Petraea, and the Holy Land, Stephens is illustrated in this full costume and is called the 'Merchant of Cairo'. Stephens was given advice by the seasoned travelers of Cairo, as to the dangers of the itinerary. With that in mind, Stephens left for the desert with a well-trained camel driver and devoted servant, Paul. Paul dressed as an Arab. (48)

Before Stephens left for his adventure he had the opportunity to meet with the co-author of a famous book on Petra, Maurice-Adolphe Linant. Linant, eleven years prior, had traveled the same route Stephens planned on traversing. Linant's journey in 1827, was only the second successful expedition to enter Petra. Petra, the city carved in stone, had been known only by the Bedouins for one thousand years. A german Orientalist, Ulrich Seetzen, while traveling around found out about Petra from a Bedouin. When Seetzen tried to penetrate the city he was murdered. Johann Ludwig Burckhardt discovered Petra in 1812. He traveled as a beggar named Ibrahim Ibn Abdallah, vowing to slaughter a goat in honor of Aaron. (49)

Even though Cairo's seasoned travelers warned him of the dangers of his chosen itinerary, Petra became Stephens' goal. One reason, the firmen of Mohammed Ali were stationed far beyond the Nile. Stephens was determined, so with Paul dressed as an Arab and a well-trained camel driver, Stephens vanished into the desert. Stephens reflected, I am about to cross a dreary waste of land, to pitch my tent wherever the setting sun might find me and... to have for my companions the wild, rude Bedouins of the desert, to follow the wandering footsteps of the children of Israel... to visit Mt. Sinai, and then the long lost city of Petra, the capital of Arabia Petraea. (50)

Stephens and his entourage traveled along the Hejaz road, which leads to Mecca, passing through the Suez, and finally taking the route following the banks of the Red Sea. The small caravan made their way to Mt. Sinai where they rested for a few days in the Monastery of St. Catherine. They then made their way to Aqaba and then to Petra.

Stephens made his way crossing the old Roman road-track. He rode through the barren land of Edom on a camel, an extremely burdomsome passage. Stephens wrote a narration on Edom called A Journey Through Idumea. He wrote of the "desolation which exalts them above Idumea," and also, "like split Syrian gourds left withering in the sun," and lastly he wrote of the desert's "emphatic uninhabitableness." Making their way to the Holy Land, Stephens' small caravan made large circling movements. (52)

Finally, late in 1836, Stephens arrived in Jerusalem, his ultimate goal. He visited holy sites, noting historical facts, and all the while managed to do a mischievous twist, as to entertain his readers. (53)

The first time John Lloyd Stephens mentions Idumea is when he was having some regrets about taking the difficult and dangerous route through Idumea to get to Petra. (54) The next occasion Stephens mentions Idumea has to do with, once again, the perils of the journey through Idumea. In fact, Paul, his guide, was against Stephens traveling through Idumea .(55)

Biblical references suggest that the Edomites were descendents of Esau, who was the oldest son of Isaac. The Israelites were descendents of Jacob who was Isaac's younger son. In the 13th Century BC, the Edomites and Israelites, who were closely related, most likely occupied Palestine, however, their later relations were not friendly. Biblical passages that mention the Edomites were most often unfriendly and there were some references in regards to their wisdom. It is possible that the Edomites may have had a king before the Israelites, but throughout the 10th and 6th Centuries BC it usually was under the rule of Israel or Judah. According to the Bible, Prince Hadah, an Edomite, was forced into exile by King David and subsequently spearheaded a rebellion against Solomon. Solomon's fleet of ships sailed to Ophim from the Edomite City on the gulf of Aqaha, Ezion-Geber. Idumea was an important trade route along the King's Highway between Arabia and the Mediterranean Sea. Idumea was also important for it's iron and copper. Edom was mentioned in Assyrian & Egyptian records, and in the New Testament was called Idumaea. (56)

Idumea in Old Testament times was a country south of the Dead Sea and Judea, which was inhabited by the descendents of Edom. Idumea, today, would be comprised of Southern Israel and Jordan. The word Idumea comes from the Hebrew name Edom. (57)

Idumea applies to the red color of the region's sandstone cliffs. The extent of its borders in the wilderness in unclear. One reason, Esau resided on Mt. Seir during the time it was home to the Horites. Mt. Seir has often been thought to be the Jebel Esh-Shara. The Jebel are a range extending the mountains of Moab, which are to the east of Arabia. Therein lies the dispute. Other indications shed light on a location that is more westerly, leading one to surmise that Mt. Seir should be found between Cades and the southern tip of the Dead Sea. The Tel-el-Amarna tablets mention the location of Idumea. (58)

The tablets refer to a city Udumu or Edom inside of a country caller Sheeri, south of western Palestine. The name Ed-Dome, is also recognized as being the name of the Edomites country. The area was south south west of Hebron.

The Israelites took the route from Cades to Asiongaber by passing Arabah directly through Salmona, Phunon, and Oboth. The Israelites traversed north-to Jeabarim to go around the land of Edom; however they were not allowed to pass through. This implies that the land did not reach farther than Arabah. Thus, Idumea not only encompassed Mt. Seir but the entire region by tribes, which claimed descent from the Edomites. (59)

Originally, the Edomites were governed by alluphim or dukes. Later in the desert they were governed by a king during the sojourn of the Hebrews. The Holy Bible lists the kings that ruled in Edom even before the children of Israel had their king. One can gather from the list that the Edomite monarchy was elective. Even though there was a blood relationship between Israel and Edom, they still had conflicts. For example, Saul's army went against the Edomites, David seized Edom, and Solomon took over the ports along the Red Sea. Idumea, during the reign of Joram, successfully kept the bondage of Jerusalem at bay.

Under Amasias, the Edomites were under the sway of Juda. Eventually they won their independence under Achaz. Juda fell into the hands of the Babylonians, whom the Edomites joined. As a result, the Edomites took control of southern Palestine, choosing Hebron as their capital.

During the Machabean war, even though the Edomites had an alliance with the Syrians, they could not keep off the Israel patriots. As a result, they were driven out of Southern Juda. The loss of the Edomites lands east of the Arabuh to the Nebathaeans made them vulnerable to their neighbors. Consequently, in 109 BC the Edomites were conquered by John Hyrcanus. Hyrcanus, nonetheless, allowed the Edomites to stay in the country. There was one condition, though: the Edomites must adapt to Judaism. After Alexandra died, Aristobulus tried to take the crown from Hyrcanus II. The Governor of Idumea, Antipater, sided with Hyrcanus II. Once the Romans arrived, he allied himself with them by lending his armies support during several expeditions.

In 47 BC Antipater was rewarded the title of Roman Citizen because of the help he gave to Julius Caesar. Also, he was appointed the procuratorship of Judea, Samaria, and Galilee. Herod the Great was his son. (60)

The next time Stephens mentions Idumea he is crossing the border into this mysterious land which is described as cursed. He further describes the land as a barren waste. Stephens explains that at one time the fruitful Idumea was given to Esau, but was taken away by an offended God. Stephens includes Isiah:34 from the Holy Bible as a prophecy of fulfillment which leaves nothing to the imagination about the fate of Idumea: For my sword shall be bathed in Heaven: behold, it shall come down upon Idumea, and upon the people of my curse, to judgement. From generation to generation it shall lie waste; none shall pass though it for ever and ever. But the cormorant and the bittern shall possess it; the owl also and the raven shall dwell in it; and he shall stretch out upon it the line of confusion and the stones of emptiness. They shall call the nobles thereof to the kingdom, but none shall be there, and all her princes shall be nothing. And thorns shall come up in her palaces, nettles and brambles in the fortresses thereof; and it shall be a habitation of dragons, and a court for owls. The wild beasts of the desert shall also meet with the wild beasts of the island, and the satyr shall cry to his fellow: the screech owl also shall rest there, and find for her a place of rest. There shall the great owl make her nest, and lay, and hatch, and gather under her shadow: there shall the vultures also be gathered, every one with her mate. Seek ye out the book of the Lord, and read: no one of these shall fail, none shall want her mate: for my mouth it hath commanded, and his spirit it hath gathered them. And he hath cast the lot from them, and his hand hath divided it unto them by line: they shall possess it forever; from generation to generation shall they dwell therein. (61)

John Lloyd Stephens traveled to Jerusalem during a turbulent and intriguing time period. The Egyptians pushed out the Ottoman Turks, who had governed the city since 1517, for a brief period, between 1831 and 1840. Stephens experienced the peril and tension between the two heavyweights. (63)

Muhammad Ali, also known as Mehemet Ali, was the Ottoman Viceroy of Egypt from 1805 until 1849, with the title of Pasha, and the Iman and the Pasha were a vital force in Muslim resistance. 64 Muhammad Ali got his start as a low-ranking army officer in Kavalia, today known as Greece. He was, as a result, sent to Egypt to fight against the Napoleonic invasion. In due course, Muhammad Ali became the governor of Egypt, or viceroy. Under Ali's rule Egypt became an autonomous state, and for himself gained some powers. (65) Mahmud II was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until 1839, who had a lifelong ambition to strengthen the crumbling empire. (66)

The seat of dynastic state of the Ottoman Empire was centered in what today is Turkey. The empire, at its height in the middle of the 14th Century, covered a vast area: from the Balkan Peninsula and Hungary, Anatolia, most of North Africa and the Middle East, including Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Arabia. During this time period, Suleiman I was at the end of his reign, and after his reign ended, the empire began a gradual decline. Finally, in the 19th Century the empire existed only in Asia Minor or what is now present-day Turkey's Anatolia region.( 67)

Between 1806 and 1812 the Ottoman Turks were at war with Russia; the Ottoman Turks were defeated. Consequently, they were demanded to abdicate the Black Sea. Greece, in 1821, started its War of Independence against the Turks. Mahmud II asked Muhammad Ali, viceroy of Egypt, for his military's help to suppress the uprising. Nonetheless, the Greeks gained the upper hand. (68)

The united efforts of the Turkish and Egyptian fleets were annihilated at the battle of Navarino in 1827 by French, British and Russian warships, however, Mahmud II did not recognize Greek independence until 1829 and only after European powers intervened on behalf of Greece. (69)

Muhammad Ali, because of his aid to the Turks, demanded Syria, which was part of the Ottoman Empire, in 1832. The Turks refused, naturally. Another altercation ensued; this time Muhammad Ali invaded Syria and Asia Minor. Here is where Muhammad Ali won a decisive battle at Konya, in which case the Russians took notice and intervened, averting the Egyptians from gaining Constantinople in 1833. Accordingly, Mahmud II was obliged to abdicate Syria to Egypt.

In 1517 the Ottoman Turks governed Jerusalem and Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent was the first ruler. Under Suleiman Jerusalem bloomed: existing walls aqueducts and structures were restored; and Jewish and Christian groups prospered. Suleiman died in 1566 and the rulers that followed were self-serving. Despite this, Jews and Christians alike made their pilgrimages to Jerusalem. These rulers ignored the needs of the city and residents and the Jewish community increasingly were at the mercy of the local authorities. (70)

The Ottoman Turks of Asia Minor overthrew the Mamelukes. Their Reign in Palestine lasted until 1917. Their 400-year rule lasted with few interruptions. Palestine was divided into many sanjaks or districts, of which Jerusalem was one, which was mostly administered by Arabs. These Arabized Palestinians descended from the Canaanites Jewish and Christian communities were given a great deal of freedom. In the 16th Century Palestine flourished under Ottoman rule, however, in the 17th century it declined as the Ottoman Empire did, and continued well into the 19th Century. More specifically, the decline took place in trade, agriculture and population. During the 19th Century, European powers were lured to the Middle East for raw materials, markets, and for strategic interests. Accordingly, economic and social development grew, and as a result Muhammad Ali, between 1831 and 1840, extended his rule to Palestine. Muhammad Ali's policies allowed for an improved agricultural yield and better education. Furthermore, his policies favored a more feudal order. Then in 1840 the Ottoman Empire regained control of Palestine and Jerusalem and subsequently put into place its own reforms. Modern machinery and capital were much needed in the 1880's brought by German settlers and Jewish immigrants. Egypt was Muhmad II's greatest challenge. John Lloyd Stephens also experienced challenges as a result of the struggle between Egypt and the Ottoman Empire. (71)

To site an instance, John Lloyd Stephens entered the Holy Land with only three mules. One was for himself, one for Paul, and the third for baggage. A muleteer also escorted Stephens and Paul along with an assistant who accompanied the small caravan on foot. The kervash, however, by far was the most important person of the party. The kervash had fought for the sultan. He was an Arnaut, a race of people that for centuries comprised the army's most brave, fierce, and terrible soldiers. The Arnauts were considered wild, and Stephens considered this 40-year-old kervash to be the wildest of the tribe. The kervash began his warriorhood as a youngster partaking in battles and bloodshed throughout his life. In fact, he fought under the Ibrahim Pasha. The Pasha had been waging a bloody campaign against Greece, and a war against the sultan, both of which the kervash fought in. According to Stephens, the kervash was wounded in a great battle in which the Egyptian soldiers had defeated the Grand Vizier. As a direct result, he was removed from the regular service and placed in an honorable position in Hebron near the governor.(72)

The kervash was a harsh character, but Stephens was on his good side. One night at dinner, Stephens learned that the Koran did not forbid followers of the Prophet from drinking wine. The kervash explained, according to Stephens: He admitted that the sultan, as being the blood of the Prophet, and as the vice-regent of God upon earth, ought not to taste it; but as to the Pasha of Egypt, he drank good wine whenever he could get it, and this gave his subjects the right to drink as often as they pleased. Their conversation was cut short by an Arab who interrupted them explaining that two robbers had been caught by a group of soldiers. The Arab continued saying that the road from Hebron to Jerusalem was the most dangerous road in the Holy Land. He also made it very clear that the Ibrahim Pasha hated Arabs anywhere in the vicinity and would kill every kill every man in the country if he had to. This is one example of the historical times in which John Lloyd Stephens was traveling in. (73)

Stephens felt that "old things and new are strangely blended in Jerusalem." Stephens knew nothing of the holy sites upon entering Jerusalem, and had to hire a Christian boy to point them out. So I think it fitting to give a brief history of the Holy City, Jerusalem. (74)

Jerusalem is unique to any other city in the world because it cradles monuments, which are sacred to Christians, Muslims, and Jews alike. Jerusalem's history is long and varied. Spiritual upheavals, foreign invasion, ethnic conflicts, and racial tensions have been ongoing throughout history. Jerusalem has been the center of Palestine for the last 3,000 years. Jerusalem has been repeatedly captured and parts of the city have been destroyed, but have always been rebuilt especially since the 19th Century. (75)

Jerusalem lies more than 800 meters above sea level in the Judean Hills. This is where East meets West culturally as well as geographically. (76)

Three thousand years ago King David founded Jerusalem nearby the Old City walls, on an inclination ascent opposite the Dung Gate. The reason Jerusalem was established here is simple. The Gihon spring and riverbeds were close by which made it convenient to cross the Judean Mountains from the West to the East.( 77)

During King Solomon's rule the city was moved and during this transition the temple was built. In 510 BC the Temple was rebuilt after the Jews were exiled to Babylon, and in 164 BC, after the defeat of the Greeks, the Temple was re-sanctified. Additions to the temple were made in 63 BC by King Herod, after the Romans defeat of Judea.

The decades thereafter were disastrous in terms of the history of Jewish people and the world. Jesus Christ, an unknown preacher, was crucified 30AD. During his lifetime, Christ's impact was confined, however. His life and preaching changed the course of history due to his disciples sharing and disseminating his teachings.

The Romans unscrupulously put down a Jewish revolt 40 years later, in which case the Jews were exiled. The Temple was also destroyed, and only a small retaining wall of the original Temple complex was left. The portion of the Temple wall left standing has been sacred to the Jews ever since and is called the Western Wall. In 164 AD the Jews attempted another revolt but once again failed and consequently the Jews were entirely banished from Judea. (78)

Queen Helena, the mother of Constantine the Great, who in 325 AD converted to Christianity, in the early 4th Century identified real locations of Christian Holy Sites in Jerusalem. Case in point, the Holy Sepulchre, or the place thought to be where Christ was both crucified and buried.

The Muslims conquered Jerusalem in 638 AD and were aghast at the Temple Mount, the location where the Temple once stood. In due course, the Dome of the Rock was built in 691 AD. The Dome is one of the most awe-inspiring structures in the world because of its beautiful mosaics and shining gold dome. This site is sacred to Muslims because they believe Mohammed ascended to Heaven from the rock inside the structure, hence the name- Dome of the Rock.( 79)

The Al-Sakae Mosque lies at the southern end of the Temple Mount. Built in 705 AD, the mosque is thought to be the northernmost spot Mohammed reached in his lifetime. (80)

In 1009 the Fatimids destructed the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. In a like manner, the Crusaders transformed the Al-Aska Mosque into the home office of the Knights Templar; furthermore, the Crusaders also rebuilt the church of the Holy Sepulchre. Jerusalem went into decline after the Crusaders were defeated in 1187. Jerusalem began it's decline under the Mamelukes and then under the Ottomans, although, for a short period of time under rule of Suleiman the Magnificent, the city flourished. By the time the 19th century rolled around, Jerusalem was a crumbling town on a hill. In fact, Mark Twain wrote of his visit to the Holy City in Innocents Abroad the city was "mournful, dreary and lifeless."

The second half of the 19th century took a turn for the better and revived the city's fortunes. To site an instance, the imperialist Europeans built religious institutions such as the German Lutheran Church of the Redeemer, and the Russian Orthodox Cathedral. At that time, the church of the Holy Sepulchre and Via Dolorosa were in the hands of the Orthodox and Catholic churches. The British General Gordon was despondent about the Orthodox and Catholic churches being in charge and perhaps out of frustration selected the Garden Tomb, which was outside of the Old City, as the true site of Calvary. (81)

At first sight, Stephens was astonished at the close proximity to Bethlehem. He remarked how small, isolated, and somber the Holy City appeared, and he was not inspired by what he saw: There were no domes, steeples, or turrets to break to monotony of its aspect, and even the mosques and minarets made no show. It would have been a relief, and afforded something to excite the feelings, to behold it in ruins or dreary and desolate like Petra or with the banner of the Prophet, the blood-red Mussulman flag, waving high above its walls. But all was tame and vacant. There was nothing in its appearance that afforded me a sensation; it did not even inspire me with melancholy; and I probably convict myself when I say that the only image it presented to my mind was that of a city larger and in better condition than the usual smaller class of those within Turkish dominion. (82)

Stephens consequently had to remind himself of the marvelous events Jerusalem had entertained, and in hearts of Christians -- the most sacred place on earth.(83)

All people of the Christian, Jewish, and Islamic faiths share the idea of a "Holy Land". Whether 'holy' signifies God, his prophets, or his people the "Holy Land" is a mosaic of histories, cultures, geography, religious practices, and beliefs. The net effect becomes that "special regard for a certain place transmitted from one generation to the next." (84) This paper sought to briefly highlight the reasons why 19th century writers made their pilgrimages, and comprehensively to further introduce John Lloyd Stephens' experiences; his reasons for making a pilgrimage and for writing a book.