Introduction:

Ottoman control of Jerusalem and surrounding territory placed restrictions on Christian travelers until the early nineteenth century. Pilgrims such as Henry Maundrell made voyages to Jerusalem, Bethlehem and other Christian Holy site for various reasons. For Maundrell, a Protestant clergyman, his journey was to finally see the home of his religious beliefs. He desired a connection to his spirituality, and he hoped he would find it in Jerusalem. He had great expectations before setting off for Jerusalem. These expectations developed through stories that Maundrell gained from the bible, written at the time of Jesus. Throughout the course of his journey, he encountered numerous Turks who were collecting taxes, and tolls for safe passage. These taxes imposed on the travelers greatly contributed to the dislike of Turks by Henry Maundrell during his pilgrimage to the Holy Land.

Biography:

Henry Maundrell was born in 1665 and attended Exeter College, at Oxford in 1682. At the time of his entrance, he was seventeen. Upon graduation in 1685 he was appointed a Fellow of the College, where he would remain until 1689. His uncle, Sir Charles Hedges was a judge of admiralty court, and would later become one of Queen Anne's Secretaries of State. Another uncle, Sir William Hedges, was the director of the bank of England, and previously the head of the Levant Company at Constantinople. This family connection to the Levant Company, and other prominent figures would help to secure Maundrell’s future positions. It was rumored that the appointment to the chaplaincy was a way to escape a romantic entanglement. Maundrell was elected to the Chaplaincy at the Levant Company's Aleppo factory on December 20th, 1695. His salary was 100 pounds a year, in addition to free room and board, as well as generous gifts from benefactors. The Levant compound Maundrell lived in was small and secluded, consisting of forty men. He had been sickly for most of his life, and died shortly after the publication of his journal. During the time of his journey, due to personal conflicts, and his severe personal illness, he was frustrated and made no attempt to understand Islam. All factors combined contributed to his distaste for the Middle East, and colored his reaction to much of his journey.

Itinerary:

            Maundrell and his company set out on Friday, February 26, 1697 from Aleppo. They traveled mostly along the western coast of Syria and Lebanon. Their first major stop was in Latkia, and then moved on to Tripoli. They went down the coast as far as Acre, and then turned inward towards Jerusalem. After attending Latin Easter celebrations in Jerusalem, Maundrell moved on to Bethlehem and the Dead Sea, returning to Jerusalem a week later. They returned home traveling through Damascus and Baalbeck, returning to the coast once again at Tripoli. From there they followed the path they had taken previously, returning to Aleppo on May 18. During the course of his journey he would come across several poll collectors, and encounter difficulty finding lodging with locals.

History of the Text:

Henry Maundrell had never intended for this journal to be published. It was written at the request of his uncle, and several of his acquaintances. The Journal was first published in 1703 at Oxford, at the urging of his uncle. The original publication was in English, and was republished in 1707, four years later. The third edition, published in 1714 included an added account, An Account of the Author's Journey to the Banks of the Euphrates at Beer, and to the Country of Mesopotamia. By 1749, seven editions had been printed. It had also been translated into three additional languages: French, Dutch, and German. The book appeared in several collections of travel writings, starting in 1750. The early popularity of the book can be attributed to his detailed descriptions of sites he encountered on his journey. He referenced many sites to passages in the bible, showing their religious historical significance.

Historical Background:

            By the fourteenth century, the Ottoman Empire covered much of the territory that is considered to be the Middle East today. Tensions between Christians and Muslims were spread throughout the territory. The English Levant Company was an established trading center with locations in Constantinople, Smyrna, and Aleppo. These trading centers were set up with approval from the Ottoman Empire, for the purpose of trade. The factories were secluded, and contact with the outside world was limited. Maundrell was a protestant cleric during a time when tensions among Catholicism and Protestantism were running high. This was especially true in England. His refusal to stay with the French consul in Jerusalem was a reaction to the persecution of Protestants in France, under the reign of Lois XIV. As a protestant clergyman, Maundrell encountered tension not only in the Ottoman Empire, but in his home in England as well. King James II was attempting to move England towards Roman Catholicism. The conflict had been ongoing since the protestant reformation in the early sixteenth century. At the same time, Louis XIV of France was also persecuting Protestants.

            Maundrell’s journey took him to Jerusalem in March of 1697, where he was present for Latin Easter celebrations. His journey is described in his writings, which were not written daily, but usually four or five times a week. His descriptions are simple, but provide enough to gain a sense of what he was experiencing. Many of the entries in Maundrell’s journal pertain to the landscape that he encountered. He gave a great deal of attention to the hills, the rivers and the lack of vegetation. It appears that his visit to the Holy Land failed to meet his expectations.  His writings display obvious distaste for not only Catholics, but the Turks as well.  

            Exegesis:

            The Ottoman control over Jerusalem, and other holy sites, greatly influenced not only the presence of Christians, but also their way of life. Ottomans imposed high taxes on infidels, and monitored their whereabouts in these sites. The difficulties encountered by Maundrell and his fellow travelers are indicative of the Turkish control in the seventeenth century. The focus on this paper, therefore, will be on the Ottoman influence on Christians. It will explore the financial impositions, as well as the Maundrell’s views of the Turks.

Monetary Obligations:

            After they gained control in the twelfth century, the Ottoman rulers collected taxes on all non-Muslims living in Jerusalem, and elsewhere in the Empire. The origin of taxes on non-Muslims originated at the time of Muhammad. After encountering resistant monotheistic groups, Muhammad developed a system for controlling non-Muslims. Those of monotheistic faiths (Christians and Jews) would be allowed to exist peacefully, so long as they recognized Muslim authority. In addition, non-Muslims would pay more taxes, and agreed not to aid enemies of Islam[1]. This would continue until the conqueror Salah al-Din extended taxes in the twelfth century. Salah al-Din imposed a tax on every Christian Pilgrim who wished to enter the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.  

Several well-kept records of taxes collected in Jerusalem still exist from this time. A census, called a “Tahrir” was taken during late seventeenth century. It detailed demographic information for all citizens from whom taxes were collected. An imperial decree was issued March 23, 1691, which outlined new regulations for better collection of taxes (“cizye”). The resulting survey was the “Register of the Poll-Tax Owed by the Infidels in the District of Jerusalem for the Year 1102” (1690-1691).[2]

            This register listed over 1800 taxpayers, the majority of whom were Christian. Explicit details were kept of each payer, including the following: Father’s name, dwelling place, physical appearance, occupation, religious denomination, and the tax rate they were charged. This list only included free male adults, who earned an income and were non-Muslim. Christian clergy were also not included on this list, but were expected to pay in locations outside of Jerusalem. An order in 1691 had eliminated the tax exempt status on clergymen.[3] This register gave precise demographic information on a portion of the population, but given the limited number of taxpayers it is incomplete. The register also is indicative of the record keeping of Ottoman officials, as it is concerned with the amount of money collected from taxes.

            Pilgrims to the Holy Sites were assessed fees, according to their nationalities, in order to be granted entrance. This served as a way for the Ottomans to turn sacred Christian sites into a money making enterprise. The Imperial order issued by Salah al-Din in 1190 decreed that a tax would be imposed on every Christian pilgrim to the church of the Holy Sepulchre. The fees were categorized by nationality and class, but only those from Western Europe were divided into classes. These classes included Commoners, who would pay full admission, Merchants who would pay forty-five percent, and monks who would pay fifty percent of the entrance fee. Each pilgrim was assessed three fees, a Basic fee, a Fortress fee, and a Stable fee. These fees varied in amount, but the highest were issued to those of central and western Europe. The lowest fees were issued to those from Egypt. Maundrell does not mention specifically how much he was charged for entrance into the Sepulchre, but given the general categories for fees, it is likely that he was charged a rate issued of 71.50 Para as a basic fee, 25.00 as a fortress fee, and 22.50 as a stable fee. Para was the common currency used to collect taxes. It was this Egyptian silver piece that currency rates were based on[4]

            Maundrell briefly mentions paying an entrance fee upon reaching the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem in time for Latin Easter celebrations. He describes the encounter vaguely.

“We found the church doors guarded by several janizaries, and other Turkish officers; who are plac’d here to watch, that none enter in, but such have paid their appointed caphar. This is more or less, according to the country, or the character of the persons that enter. For Franks, it is ordinarily fourteen dollars per head, unless they are ecclesiasticks; for in that case it is but half so much.”[5]

Nowhere in his writings does he specifically state how much he and his fellow travelers had to pay for entrance fees, or roadside taxes. Henry Timberlake, another seventeenth century traveler also remarked on the entrance fee for admission into the Holy Sepulcher. He writes, “At five [in the afternoon] the Turks let us into the Holky Sepulcher, each of us paying nine gold pieces for our entrance.”[6] Neither traveler extensively details the fees assessed to him. Maundrell does explain that visitors were only allowed to enter and exit the church at specific times without being required to pay the fee again.[7]

            The church was not the only location that pilgrims would encounter fees. Throughout the Ottoman Empire, many toll stations were set up to collect fees for safe passage. These fees were extensive and incredible difficult to avoid. Road blocks were established at major ports of entrance, and at various points along commonly followed passages to Jerusalem. The port of Jaffa was incredibly important to the income of the Ottoman treasury. Of its contribution of 8,052 gurus esedi[8] in 1698, 5,000 came from pilgrim fees. It is estimated that 350 pilgrims passed through Jaffa during this year alone.[9]

            Pilgrims were rarely able to avoid the numerous toll stations, as the officials monitored the stations closely and were able to identify those that had tried to bypass them. Avoid checkpoints could also be hazardous to pilgrims because they risked encountering “brigands who might attack them physically, and would quite surely leave them stripped of everything, including garments.”[10] As a result, many pilgrims found themselves broke upon reaching Jerusalem, and unable to pay even the entrance fee to the church, thus rendering their journey fruitless.

            Travelers such as Maundrell found these checkpoints to be cumbersome and excessive. Throughout his Journal, Maundrell notes several occasion on which he is forced to pay a caphar.[11] Upon reaching the first checkpoint in Te-ne-ree, Maundrell explains the origin for these fees. They had originally been set up to finance the maintenance of roads, and to protect travelers from Arabs and Robbers. However, Maundrell feels that these reasons are no longer applicable, and Turks are “pretending the same causes for it” charging “arbitrary and unreasonable sums”. These Turks in fact “prove the greatest rogues and robbers themselves.”[12] Maundrell will continue to object to these fees throughout his journal, ultimately these encounters will culminate to an even greater distaste for Islam and the Ottoman Empire.

            Snide comments towards the Turks are found throughout Maundrell’s writing. Upon reaching the caphar of Crussia he notes that the Kane available for shelter is nothing more than a cold ruin on a hill. Further on in their journey, they came across a river that was difficult to cross. A group of locals wait for pilgrims, and offer to help them cross the river safely. The pilgrims are led to the deepest part of the river, with claims that it is in fact the easiest point of passage. The travelers are led across the river, where they are obliged to pay a large sum for their safe passage. Maundrell claims that the Turks will either make a great deal of money, or allow the pilgrims to drown and collect the spoils. All this was done, he notes “according to their trade.”[13]   

            While Maundrell was frustrated with the amount of money he was forced to pay, he never attempted to bargain, or to talk his way out of the fee. Instead, he simply paid the fee, or did not embark on a specific path. At one point during the journey, he was required to pay two caphars, in addition to whatever the collector demanded of them. This collector had even requested that the group give up their coats. Maundrell did not object to this, simply because the weather was getting increasingly hotter, and the coats became more of a burden.[14] At yet another checkpoint, Maundrell and his fellow travelers were forced to wait nearly twenty-four hours before receiving word on how to pay the caphar. They decided to wait patiently instead of moving forward. They felt it was best to “comply as contentedly as we could.”[15]

            Upon leaving the church of the Spulchre, all pilgrims were required to pay a fee for a group of soldiers to accompany them, regardless of whether or not they were continuing the journey. The fee was reduced in half for ecclesiastics, but all had to pay. They would not be allowed to continue without the guards. Shortly after leaving the church, they were faced with a group of armed Arabs who demanded two hundred dollars for permission to travel up a mountain. Maundrell and the rest of the travelers chose to leave without ascending the mountain, grateful for an excuse to not climb the dangerous mountain.

            Although Maundrell was constantly cooperative with the Turks and their excessive demands of fees, his view of them was very poor. In a letter to the Reverend Mr. Osborn, Maundrell expressed his opinions of Turks, and their way of life. He described them as great mathematicians and accountants, but that was the only positive description he provided. He further describes them as cheats, that “friendship, generosity, and wit… are perfect strangers to their minds”. He continues on to say

“I have seen ‘em in an affected charity, give money to bird-catchers to restore the poor captives to their natural liberty, and at the same time hold their own slaves in the heaviest bondage. And at other times they’ll buy flesh to relieve indigent dogs and cats; and yet curse you with famine and pestilence, and all the most hideous execrations.”[16]

Given the heavy taxes and fees imposed upon him and his fellow travelers, it is understandable that Maundrell would show such a dislike for the Turks.

The reputation that the Turks gained as being greedy and exploitative was not completely unfounded. British opinion of the Ottoman Empire was not positive during the sixteenth and seventeenth century. Many works of art, literature and drama portrayed the Turks as being in bed with the devil. Arabic was even viewed as a “dead language” by many scholars. Nabil Matar even notes that in Maundrell’s own work no illustrations of Muslims appeared, and that all illustrations were simply geographical and architectural in nature.[17]

Conclusion:

            When Henry Maundrell set out for Jerusalem in the spring of 1697, he had hoped to get in touch with the roots of his Protestant religious beliefs. The journey was colored by the excessive fees imposed on him throughout his journey. Very rarely does he mention Arabs or Turks in his writings, and when they are mentioned, it is only to describe how they attempt to cheat pilgrims out of their money. It was only at the request of a friend that he finally expressed his extreme dislike for the Turks of the Ottoman Empire. While many events preceded his journey, they alone could not have contributed to such a hatred for another race. It was through constant fees and unfriendly encounters that Maundrell further developed his distaste for Turks, and overall the Middle East.