Study of Egeria

for

Dr Spade

History 493

Senior Seminar

by

Paul Reyes

August 10 998

The history of pilgrimages has been studied by many historians and the diaries of these pilgrims have been invaluable not only in learning about pilgrimages, but also about how people lived in the given time period of diary. Modern pilgrimages still take place. This summer (1998), for instance, Sandra Otto, of the University of Southern Colorado, along with a group of students and a professor, traveled through northern Spain on a pilgrimage to Santiago de-Compostela. Otto kept a diary that detailed the pain of walking fifteen to twenty miles per day. In addition, she described in detail her encounters with many fellow pilgrims from North and South America, Africa and many European countries. I had the opportunity to interview Otto and I read her diary. She spoke and wrote mainly of the breathtaking scenery and the physical toll of the pilgrimage, which was made mostly on foot. She stated that her pilgrimage was more educational than religious but she was, nonetheless, quite moved by the history and religious zeal of those that had gone before her.⁽¹⁾ Her diary is a secular recollection of places, people and things seen; however, it is in many ways similar to the thoughts left in a diary by another female pilgrim. This pilgrim's name was Egeria. She made her journey in the late fourth century, to Holy City of Jerusalem

This paper will first give a brief introduction to Christian pilgrimages. I will then delve into the controversial biography of Egeria. Finally I will examine route and give a general history of how the diary was found and where it may have been through the centuries.

Pilgrimages Prior to Egeria

The idea of a pilgrimage may seem odd to postEnlightenment society; however, modern pilgrimages are a daily occurrence for thousands of individuals. Many of us our first ideas about religious journeys come from the Bible. The first biblical pilgrimage may have been Abraham leaving Haran for the land of Canaan, or the Hebrews leaving Egypt the Promised Land. The first Christian pilgrimage may be found in the journey of the Three Wise men to visit the Christ child. The book of Acts in the Bible, describes travelers from away places coming to Jerusalem for religious festivals. These religious festivals came to an end when Titus, who later became Emperor of Rome, came to Jerusalem to suppress the Jewish rebels who had gathered in Jerusalem.⁽²⁾ After a prolonged, savage siege, the temple was set on fire and destroyed along with the rest of the city, in September of 70 A.D.

The destruction of the temple and surrounding city temporarily ended most trips to Jerusalem.⁽³⁾ The Romans prohibited Jews and some Christians from visiting the city. While some religious journeys were apparently made to the city, a historical record of such a pilgrimage is not found until the discovery of the writings of Melito, the Bishop of Sardis. In his letter, he stated that he came to confirm some names and places from the Old Testament. The number of pilgrims to the city dramatically increased in the fourth century.⁽⁴⁾ By this time, Christianity had attained a stronger position in he Roman Empire. Constantine the Great, a Roman emperor sympathetic to Christianity granted Christianity official status similar to that of other officially recognized religions. His mother, Helen, a devote Christian visited Jerusalem and the surrounding area to select sites for churches.⁽⁵⁾

The pilgrimage during the period of Egeria, the late fourth century, was quite different Jerusalem was still recovering from many changes in governmental power. Early in the year of 362, Emperor Julian met with Jewish leaders from Jerusalem and told them that he wanted to make Jerusalem a city of multiple gods. He advised them that he would assist with the rebuilding of the temple and also assist in removing the Christians from the city. Jewish leaders began to build a temporary synagogue and along the pagans turned against the Christians. However, in May of that year an earthquake hit the city and destroyed their synagogue and all of their work. Emperor Julian also died a few weeks later while fighting in the East. In 379, Theodosius I, a Spanish Christian became emperor.⁽⁶⁾ He was a fervent supporter of Christians in Jerusalem. This allowed pilgrimages to flourish in the late fourth century and the stage for Egeria to make her journey

Itinerary of Egeria

Egeria's diary of pilgrimage is very unique for two principal reasons. First, it covers a time period relatively soon after the death of Christ and is one of first written accounts of a Christian pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Second, this text is one of the few pilgrim diaries written by a woman of this time period that was preserved. The pilgrimage to Jerusalem was a religious pursuit made almost exclusively by men in the Late Middle Ages.⁽⁷⁾ One might think that seven centuries earlier, women would not even have attempted such a trip. However, in

Egeria's time period, the late fourth century, a substantial number of women made this journey.⁽⁸⁾ In spite of this, there is little written history about women during this time period and even less written by women. Egeria's diary also details: 1) the liturgy of the time, found nowhere else, 2) different people, 3) the physical landscape and road system, 4) the actual buildings of the time and 5) the physical layout of Jerusalem and other cities. In her diary, Egeria even documents people and officials of significance during this time period.

The diary is not complete so we are not given details as to how she arrived in Constantinople from her home. She could have traveled via ship through a strong Roman merchant shipping system or traveled over land. The land route would have been arduous, and the crossing of the Alps would have been extremely dangerous even on a Roman road. So she most likely would have taken a merchant ship, or several ships, as very few made the journey straightway to Constantinople.⁽⁹⁾

Once she left Constantinople she would have traveled by an excellent Roman road system. The Romans upgraded ancient paths into an all weather road system usually wide enough for two vehicles. By the fourth century every thousand paces there would have been a milaria (or milestone) and every twelve to eighteen miles a mutatione or posting station.⁽¹⁰⁾ Roads were policed by a provincial police force the safety of commerce and pilgrims The church looked after pilgrims once they arrived at the posting stations After the Council of Nicea in 325, this function became an official obligation of local church officials.⁽¹¹⁾

Since we do not have the first portion of the diary we cannot be sure how she reached Jerusalem. So what one historian has done is to reverse the route taken as Egeria departed Jerusalem for the last time, in order to trace what path she took to initially arrive there. The historian could do this because of certain quotations in Egeria's diary that tell of her trip to Jerusalem,⁽¹²⁾ such as: "by a route already know to me, through several provinces that I had already crossed on my journey down," and "the same Tarsus in which I had already been on my trip down."⁽¹³⁾

Historians believe that she would have started traveling the main roads in a North to South direction through modern day Turkey. During this time period, this area constituted the Roman provinces called Bythnia, Galatia and Capadocia. She would have then arrived at Tarsus in present day southern Turkey Here she would have taken the important road called Via Maris which parallels the Mediterranean Sea until she reached Antioch. She then would have moved on towards Tyre on the eastern Mediterranean Sea and arrived at Caesarea and the connecting road to Jerusalem. Historians believe that she would have arrived in Jerusalem around Easter in 381.⁽¹⁴⁾

She visited the main holy places in and near the city and went as far as Neapolis. She made two journeys to Egypt. Her first journey to Egypt comprised a long tour to visit clergy and monks in Nutria and Thebaid Afterward, she returned through Goshen.' This part of her trip would have taken about two years from 381 to 383 A.D Her text actually begins on the Via Maris road south of Jerusalem near Clymsa where it connects with the Sinai-Aquaba Road, near Feiran, a desert oasis. She was traveling eastward to the Sinai Valley to Mt. Sinai The journey to Mount Sinai would have occurred at the time of her return to Jerusalem from Egypt in about January 384 A.D. She then traveled back to Jerusalem and took a minor detour to see Goshen once again, as she tried to re-trace the route of the Israelites, while wandering in the desert for forty years. In February and March of 384, she took a road which is east of the Via Maris which also runs parallel to the coastline, but further inland. Here she would have visited the place of Christ's baptism, the wedding feast and the ruins of Jericho and then headed back to Jerusalem.⁽¹⁵⁾

Her return journey from Jerusalem, most likely would have begun after Easter activities in 384. She headed northward to Antioch and then East via a military road through the Euphrates and Tigris river valley to Edessa and Haran. This city is closely associated with the early life of Abraham and was most likely the reason for her visit. She then returned back towards Antioch and then to Tarsus. She arrived in Tarsus in May 384, and here Egeria decided to see the shrine of St. Thecla and visit with a friend, Marthana. She would have arrived back in Constantinople in June or July of 384 A.D. While in Constantinople, she wrote to her sisters to advise them of her desire to travel to St. John's at Ephesus. This is where her diary ends and we are given no further details as to her success or failure.

Historians do not agree as to Egeria's home or for whom she was writing. As for her home, two places have been suggested: Galicia, a Roman province in Northwestern Spain, and a Roman province called Gaul. Since we do not the beginning or end of the text, this controversy will most likely never be settled.

Some historians believe that Galicia in northern Spain could be her home because of the writings of a Spanish monk named Valerius. He wrote of her three-hundred years after her death and spoke of her as a fellow countryman. Valerius encouraged his fellow monks to be strong Christians like Egeria. Valerius ended his epistle to his fellow monks by adding that Egeria came from the coast of the most western part of the Atlantic Ocean. It must be pointed out; however, that Valerius never mentions Galicia or Spain.⁽¹⁶⁾ It is not known whether Valerius had a copy of the diary, but it is still unlikely that there would have been any location.

Of these two areas, Southern Gaul is accepted as the most likely home of Egeria by most modern scholars. By the fourth century, Gaul had been heavily influenced by Roman civilization and knowledge. Donald Swanson, a Latin scholar, claims that the Latin Egeria used was the dialect of the lower Rhone Valley.⁽¹⁷⁾ This along with Egeria's comparison of the Euphrates River with the Rhone River is used as evidence to support southern Gaul as the home of Egeria.⁽¹⁸⁾

Historians have not uncovered any biographical evidence detailing Egeria's life prior to her pilgrimage. Her actual name is still a matter of debate. Here are some of the names that one may discover while studying our pilgrim: Aetheria, Aeiheria, Etheria, Eheria, Eucheria, Silvia, Heteria and finally Egeria. While most of these are variations in spelling, Silvia and Egeria have been the two names that historians have used since the diary was discovered. A historian recognized that the letter written by Valerius in the seventh century was referring to the female participant in the manuscript of Egeria's diary rediscovered by Gamurrini, in 1882. Valerius uses the name Aetheria, in his epistle. Other evidence makes a better case for Egeria. The Liber Glassarum, a religious manuscript written in the eleventh century uses the name Egeria for a diary possibly in its possession. Another abbey in the twelfth century listed the Igerarium Geriae as one of its books.⁽¹⁹⁾

Some evidence shows that she was a well-born woman and perhaps related to a high ranking official of the government or military. Her ability to travel without any financial worries and with regular military escorts may point to a woman of wealth. She apparently was not a nun or even associated with a monastery. Hagith Sivan has come up with this hypothesis based on the various military and religious escorts she details in her diary, and also because of the length of her journey. For a nun to have been away from her home for so long may have been an impossibility, according to Sivan. Egeria's total freedom of movement and lack of financial worries seem to place her within some sphere of financial or military power.⁽²⁰⁾

Historians, like Sivan do not believe that she was well-educated Sivan sites Egeria's poor grammar (especially her frequent repetitions), clumsy syntax and lack of experience with Greek as someone from a non-aristocratic background. Other female, aristocratic pilgrims from around this time period such as Melania and Paula wrote journals which show a mastery of the liturgy and language. These pilgrim aristocrats knew Greek, Latin and possibly Hebrew. Egeria's writings do not show that she had any familiarity with other great theologians and very little practice with Greek Consequently, Sivan along with other historians believe that Egeria falls short of a Christian woman of the highest class of society.⁽²¹⁾ Others historians like Leo Spitzer dispute the argument of Egeria's poor grammar. He points to the genre of diary and pilgrimage as affecting how one would write such a diary. Egeria's naive astonishment and repetitions should not be interpreted as a lack of education. Spitzer believes these errors are more stylistics that grammatical. He argues her emotional earnestness has affected how she wrote. Her pattern of repetition is intended to emphasize the sameness of things found in the Bible in comparison. to what she saw. Spitzer concludes that Egeria undertook this pilgrimage protected with the highest local authorities in the various sites she visited and her style does not her access to the highest levels of society.⁽²²⁾

Donald Swanson does an excruciatingly detailed analysis of her Egeria's vocabulary in an eighty page article. After his analysis he surmises that her Vulgar Latin is reasonably satisfactory. Mr. Swanson also states that there has not been sufficient study on Egeria's diary in a wider context. He feels that studying selected differences does not constitute a true analysis of the text. He states it is weaker grammatically at the beginning and end but otherwise it is an acceptable piece of text for its time.⁽²³⁾

Sivan disputes the claim by Valerius that Egeria was his fellow countryman from near Cape Finestre in the province of Galicia, Spain. She argues that Northeast Spain seems an unlikely place for a Christian woman of her time This area of Spain was sparsely populated and Christianity in this area was more of an urban phenomenon. Sivan would place her in southern Gaul, a highly Romanized area of the Western Roman Empire with villages and towns more influenced by Christianity. This is given more credibility by a quote from Egeria where she compares the Euphrates River to the Rhone River.⁽²⁴⁾

The time period that Egeria traveled in also has some unresolved concerns. Most place the actual pilgrimage

between 379 A. D. and 395 A. D., during the reign of Thedosius. Historians believe that Egeria lived no earlier than 363 A.D. and no later than 540 A.D. These dates are based on information from the diary, which historians compare with other historical dates and facts. At the end of her pilgrimage, she talks of wanting to go further east to see the city of Ur. She notes that she is advised by the Roman soldiers that Roman citizens are not allowed to travel there. This area was ceded to the Persians in 363 A.D. Therefore we know that she could not have gone earlier than 363 A.D. On the other end of this time period is Egeria's visit to the Mount Sinai and the area claimed to be the site of the burning bush. When Egeria visits she describes the monastery as having individual areas where the monks lived, she calls them cells. The actual monastery was founded in 527 by the Roman Emperor Justinian and completed by 540 A.D and was called Saint Catherine's monastery.⁽²⁵⁾ Since she

does not speak of a completed monastery we know that she was not there after 540 A.D.

History of the Text

Egeria's diary is one of the first substantial texts written by a Christian woman. The text has been a great starting point for archeologist who are searching for biblical sites.⁽²⁶⁾ The diary also shows us that a pilgrimage system was already under way by the time of her journey to Jerusalem. The text does not explicitly state who the author of diary is, as mentioned earlier. The author of the text does not seem to name herself in the diary either. What historians discovered was an incomplete diary, about one-third of the diary appears to be preserved. The preserved diary itself is divided into forty-nine chapters. The first twenty-three chapters detail the events of the latter part of her journey. The second twenty-six chapters contain a report of the liturgical calendar and daily rituals of Christian Jerusalem.

The diary was first mentioned by the Spanish monk, Valerian in a letter in the seventh century. The diary is not mentioned again in written history until the tenth century. It is mentioned in a catalogue of a library in the Monastery of San Salvador de Celanova. Two hundred years later, in the twelfth century, Peter the Deacon, a Benedictine monk copied portions of the text into the Liber de locis sanctis. In the thirteenth century, a copy of the diary was known to be in the library of the monastery of St Martia in Limoges.⁽²⁷⁾

No further mention of the diary was made, until the text was re-discovered in 1884. It was found by C. P. Gamurrini, an Italian historian at the library of the Pia Fraternita in a town called Arreso. It was found bound into a codex. It was first published in 1887 and substantially corrected a year later. The text was not translated to English until 1891, by J. H. Bernard.⁽²⁸⁾

Biblical References

Egeria's diary is full of biblical references of things that may have occurred according to the Bible. Since historians seem to be less sure of her religious education, I would like to review some of the significant Christian sites that she visited and find where they are referenced in the Bible. The city of Jerusalem will not be covered since its holiness and importance to Christians is apparent and does not need to be further substantiated

One of the first areas she mentioned is the area of Goshen and Mount Sinai among other sites. This land is important because it is where the Israelites first came to Egypt when a famine forced them from their homeland. This journey of the Israelites recorded in the forty-seventh chapter of Genesis. According to the book of Exodus this is also the area where the Israelites were to have wandered for forty years after exiting Egypt. Egeria was interested in reviewing some of the sites that the Israelites traveled in the wilderness. She talks of many sites including: Migdol, Etham, Pi Hahiroth, Mount Horeb, Mount Sinai, the site of the Burning Bush, Pharan and many others. I will attempt to cover a few of the sites that she mentioned on her trip to Sinai and Goshen.

During their forty years in the wilderness of Sinai many vital points of interest for Christianity were initiated. The area of Pharan is mentioned in the diary on her travel to Goshen, "Once we had arrived at Pharan, which is thirty-five miles from Sinai,"⁽²⁹⁾ Pharan is significant because it is the sight of the first encampment for

the tribes fleeing Egypt as mentioned in the book of Numbers chapter ten. According to Exodus chapter thirteen the Israelites were not officially in the wilderness until they reached Etham. Egeria mentions Etham as their party is leaving Mount Sinai, "They also showed us Etham, which lies on the edge of the desert,".⁽³⁰⁾ Pi hahiroth was where the Israelites were encamped when Pharaoh caught up with them. It is an area between Migdol and the Dead Sea according toExodus chapter fourteen. The site of. "The Burning Bush" was to be found near Mount Horeb and is mentioned in the book of Exodus chapter three. Egeria mentions this area early in her diary, "Furthermore, at the head of this same valley is the place where God spoke twice from the burning bush to the holy man Moses as he was grazing his father-in-law's flocks "⁽³¹⁾ Mount Horeb is also important to Christians because this is the place where Moses smote the rock and water was released from it for the thirsty tribes. The wilderness called Sinai is where the Israelites did most of their wandering, as explained in Exodus Chapter nineteen. The Israelites also conquered various cities in this area that Egeria mentions in her diary. Egeria writes, "One is Hesebon, which belonged to Sehon, king of the Amorrhites, and which is today is called Exebon."⁽³²⁾ The conquest of these cities is noted in the book of Numbers chapter twenty-one. Egeria visits Uz, the birthplace of Job, as mentioned in the biblical book that bares his name chapter one. Aenon is another stop for her and this is the site where Jesus and John the Baptist performed many baptisms, which is found in John chapter three of John's gospel.

In her return trip she mentioned traveling through the cities of Antioch, "In the name of Christ our God, I set out from Antioch to Mesopotamia."⁽³³⁾ Antioch is important to Christianity because, as we see in Acts chapter eleven; it is the first place where these new religious disciples were called Christians. Also in Acts, we find Tarsus which Egeria travels through on her way to and from Jerusalem. Tarsus is mentioned in the Bible as the home of Saul mentioned in Acts chapter nine. He was later converted to Christianity and changed his name to Paul.

Also interesting is her trip to the river valley of the Euphrates and Tigris River valley. This area is thought to be the birthplace of civilization by most historians. Haran is found in this river valley and is important to Christians because it is the birthplace of Abraham and the area he left to come to the land of Canaan as found in the book of Genesis chapter twelve. These are just a few of the places that Egeria visited outside Jerusalem. Her visits always included prayer and reverence for the sites that she was visiting and the biblical evidence for these sites is strong.

Conclusion

The most controversial issues facing the subject of Egeria seem to be her place of origin, and her background. evidence pointing to Gaul as the home of Egeria seems to have the strongest evidence. Historians will most likely be able to ascertain if Valerius had a copy of her diary to determine if she was his countryman. The Roman Empire and Christianity had a much stronger hold on Gaul than it did in northern Spain. Egeria's reference to the Rhone River and dialect also make Gaul a more likely home for Egeria spread of Christianity to this point in history also gives credence to an origin in a more urbanized area of Gaul than the sparsely populated areas of Galicia. The dialect that she writes in also leads one to conclude that she most likely is from Gaul. This evidence is not as solid as a historian would hope for but it does point to an origin in the area of Gaul much more strongly than anywhere else.

Determining Egeria's educational level was strongly argued by historians Hagith Sivan, Donald Swanson and Leo Spitzer. Sivan points to other highly educated women and compares them to Egeria. She also attempts to argue that Egeria's grammar and syntax preclude her from claiming a home in the upper echelons of society and the educational level that wealth would signify. Leo Spitzer does a much more thorough investigation of her diary. His investigation comes up with a stronger argument that indicates that while Egeria was not among the most highly educated of her time she does write with sufficient mastery of her own language. He dismantles the arguments of others by stating that they are not taking a macro view of the diary. The context of a great journey cannot be looked at in pieces. Critics find errors in her syntax but these errors are explained for the most part by Mr. Spitzer who argues that they should not be used to discount her education.

Egeria and her diary have warranted investigation and her paradoxes leave modern scholars with more to study. Her diary in its simplest form shows us what an early pilgrimage entailed and the incredible liturgical events of the time, especially in Jerusalem. Her recordings form an important link from which historians have much to learn and debate.

A N N 0 T A T E D

B I B L I 0 G R A P H Y

Armstrong, Karen. Jerusalem One City Three Faiths. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 1996.

A thorough history of Jerusalem and detailed explanation of how this city became the center of dissension.

Bonsnes, Marjorie P. The Pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1982

Using Egeria and an Anglo-Saxon nun in a Bavarian monastery, this author investigates what role women had in society and the social order of the third and fourth centuries.

Brefeld, Josephie. A Guidebook for the Jerusalem Pilgrimage in the Late Middle Ages. Verloren Huilversum, 1994.

The author seeks to answer the question of whether there once was a source book that was available to mediaeval pilgrims.

Gingras, George E. Egeria: Diary of a Pilgrimage. New York: Newman Press, 1970.

An informative introduction to the diary of Egeria and translation of the diary by chapter.

Hindley, Geoffrey. A History of Roads. Secaucus: Citadel Press, 1972.

A discussion of the general lines of development in the history of the world's overland transport.

Nardo, Don. Life on a Medieval Pilgrimage. San Diego: Lucent Books, 1996.

An easy to read, general introduction into the history of pilgrimages of the late Middle Ages: how and why they were made.

Navon, Yitzhak, Nachman Ran and Nafftali Kadmon, eds. Journeys to the Promised Land. New York: Portland House, 1987.

Primarily an art book, the author uses maps and illustrations to demonstrate how Christian pilgrimages began and the record left by these early pilgrims.

Rivers, Joseph Tracy III. Pattern and Process in Early Christian Pilgrimage. Durham: Duke University, 1983.

With thorough background information, this dissertation details pilgrimages prior to 250 A.D.

Schur, Nathan. Twenty Centuries of Christian Pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Tel Aviv: Dvir Publishing, 1992.

This author successfully attempts to give a brief history of pilgrimages from Roman times to the twentieth century.

Sivan, Hagith. "Holy Land Pilgrimage and Western Audiences: Some Reflections on Egeria and her Circle." Classical Quarterly 38 (1988): 508-535.

This essay attempts to gauge the concerns, expectations and cultural background of Egeria's immediate circle of friends.

Sivan, Hagith. "Who Was Egeria? Piety and Pilgrimage in the Age of Hadrian." Harvard Theological Review 81 (January 1988): 59-72.

A challenge as to the status of Egeria: her background both religious and secular.

Skrubicha, Heinz. Sinai. London: Oxford University Press, 1966.

The ancient history of Mt. Sinai from the time before Christ, to early hermits and monks, the Moslem influence and the founding of the monastery of St. Katherine.

Spitzer, Leo. "The Epic Style of the Pilgrim Aetheria." Comparative Literature. (Summer 1949): 225-258.

This article attempts to study Egeria's diary from both linguistics and literary history. It is a defense against those who believe Egeria was poorly educated.

Swanson, Donald C. "A Formal Analysis of Egeria's Vocabulary." Glotta 44 (1967): 177-254.

An extensive, extremely detailed study of Egeria's use of vocabulary. This analysis is made for the use of someone that has an interest in linguistics.

Thubron, Colin. Jerusalem. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1969.

A general history of ancient Jerusalem, from its founding and biblical history to the early Crusades

Wilkinson, John. Egeria's Travels to the Holy Land. London: Ariel Publishing House, 1981.

Besides giving basic background information on Egeria and her diary, this author goes into great detail about the information Egeria left about the liturgy and layout of Jerusalem.

Wilson-Kastner, Kastner, Millin Rosemary, Rader, and Jeremiah Reedy, eds. A Lost Tradition Women Writers of the Early Church. Washington, D.C.: University Press of America, Inc., 1981.

This book introduces the importance of early Christian women writers and their influence on early church history.

1. Sandra Otto, interviewed by author, Pueblo, CO 11 July 1998

2. Nachman, et al eds., Journeys to the Promised Land (New York: Portland House, 1987), 12-17.

3. Colin Thubron, Jerusalem (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1969), 62-71.

4. Joseph Tracy Rivers III, Pattern and Progress in Early Christian Pilgrimage (Durham: University Microfilms International, 1983), 40-44.

5. 5 Nathan Schur, Twenty Centuries of Christian Pilgrimages to the Holy Land (Tel Aviv, Dvir Publishing, 1992), 1-12.

6. Karen Armstrong, Jerusalem One City Three Faiths (New York: Alfred A Knopf, 1996), 194 - 197.

7. Josephie Brefeld, A Guidebook for the Jerusalem Pilgrimage in the Late Middle Ages, (Amsterdam; Hilversum Verloren, 1994), 15.

8. Schur, 5.

9. Marjorie P. Bonsnes, The Pilgrimage to Jerusalem: A Typological Metaphor for Women in Early Medieval Religious (New York: New York University, 1982), 95-96.

10. George Hindley, A History of Roads (Secaucus: Citadel Press, 1972), 37-40.

11. Bonsnes, 98-102

12. Ibid, p. 103.

13. Gingrass, 86-88.

14. Bonsnes, p. 103.

15. Ibid., 105-107.

16. Hagith, Sivan, "Who Was Egeria? Piety and Pilgrimage in the Age of Hadrian," Harvard Theological Review 81 (1988): 58-61.

17. Donald S. Swanson, "A Formal Analysis of Egeria's Vocabulary," 177-179.

18. Bonsnes, 58-59. '9

19. John Wilkinson, Egeria's Travels to the Holy Land (London: Ariel Publishing, 1981), 235-236

20. Hagith Sivan, "Holy Land Pilgrimage and Western Audiences: Some Reflection on Egeria and her Circle," 528 - 531.

21. Sivan, 59-69.

22. Leo Spitzer, "The Epic Style of the Pilgrim Aetheria," Comparative Literature 3 (1949): 225-249.

23. Swanson, 177-180.

24. Rivers, 320-323. Sivan, 528-535

25. Heinz Skrobucha, Sinai, (London: Oxford University Press, 1966), 32-35.

26. Rivers, 320-323.

27. Wilkinson, 7-8.

28. Ibid, 7.

29. Gingras, 59.

30. Ibid, 61.

31. Ibid, 50.

32. Ibid, 69.

33. Ibid, 76.